Legume Research

  • Chief EditorJ. S. Sandhu

  • Print ISSN 0250-5371

  • Online ISSN 0976-0571

  • NAAS Rating 6.80

  • SJR 0.391

  • Impact Factor 0.8 (2024)

Frequency :
Monthly (January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December)
Indexing Services :
BIOSIS Preview, ISI Citation Index, Biological Abstracts, Elsevier (Scopus and Embase), AGRICOLA, Google Scholar, CrossRef, CAB Abstracting Journals, Chemical Abstracts, Indian Science Abstracts, EBSCO Indexing Services, Index Copernicus
Submit

Full Research Article

Quantification of Green Fodder Yield Losses Due to Diseases and Insect-pests Infecting Cowpea in North-Eastern and North-Western Regions of India

Ashlesha Atri1,*, N.R. Bhardwaj2, D.K. Banyal3, Sandip Landge4, Arabinda Dhal5, Harpreet K. Cheema1, Devinder Pal Singh1
1Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab, India.
2Indian Council of Agricultural Research- Directorate of Rapeseed-Mustard Research, Sewar, Bharatpur-321 303, Rajasthan, India.
3Department of Plant Pathology, Chaudhary Sarwan Kumar Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur-176 062, Himachal Pradesh, India.
4All India Coordinated Research Project on Forage Crops and Utilization, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722, Maharashtra, India.
5All India Coordinated Research Project on Forage Crops and Utilization, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar-751 003, Odisha, India.

  • Submitted09-11-2023|

  • Accepted04-11-2024|

  • First Online 20-02-2025|

  • doi 10.18805/LR-5272

ABSTRACT

Background: Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is a leguminous crop cultivated for pulse, feed and fodder in tropical and sub-tropical regions worldwide. Although the cowpea is adapted to most of the regions in India, the crop is threatened by diseases like root rot, cowpea yellow mosaic virus, leaf spot and anthracnose and pests such as aphids and defoliators.

Methods: In this study, green fodder yield losses due to diseases and pests were quantified in fodder cowpea at five locations for three cropping seasons 2019-2021. There were two treatments one was protected with fungicides/biocontrol agents/biopesticides and another was unprotected. The incidence of diseases and pests was recorded in both treatments.

Result: The mean root rot incidence was 1.39 to 50.24 per cent at three locations, the severity of cowpea yellow mosaic virus ranged between 0.69 to 14.49% and the disease severity of foliar diseases was 0.75 to 40.40 per cent. Whereas aphid population was in the range of 3.93 to 30.26 aphids per twig and infestation on cowpea by defoliators was observed in the range of 1.31 to 45.64 per cent. The average green fodder yield losses were ranged between 11.06 to 46.21 percent with highest losses were recorded at Palampur location and lowest were estimated at Ludhiana location. The crop loss models were also prepared for disease and pest damage to assess the relationship between disease severity, pest infestation and green fodder yield of cowpea. The correlation was found negative/positive and highly significant at p=0.01 and p=0.05 between disease severity, pest damage values and green fodder yield losses at all five test locations. Regarding the management of diseases and pests, the focus should be on the timely application of management measures.  

INTRODUCTION

Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] is a versatile, drought-tolerant and warm-weather legume belonging to the family Fabaceae. Cowpea is cultivated for pulse, feed, fodder and the recovery of soil fertility as green manure in tropical and sub-tropical regions worldwide (Gogile et al., 2013). In India, cowpea is cropped in arid and semi-arid regions like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Haryana, West Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan, Kerala and Maharashtra. The crude protein content in leaves is more than 30%, along with carbohydrates and minerals (iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorus), making it suitable for animal consumption (Biama et al., 2020).
      
Although the cowpea is adapted to most of the regions in India, the crop is threatened by various diseases and pests. The major diseases that cause considerable losses in yield are collar rot, dry root rot, leaf spot and anthracnose. Significant yield losses upto 35 to 65% in cowpea have been reported due to root rots caused by Rhizoctonia solani, Macrophomina phaseolina and Fusarium oxysporum (Jha et al., 2020). Cowpea mosaic virus is capable of causing 7-60% yield losses (Neya et al., 2015). The major pests which severely damage cowpea during all growth stages are aphids (Aphis craccivora), defoliators such as tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) and Bihar hairy caterpillar (Spilosoma oblique). Defoliators infest growing plant tips, buds, leaves, stems. These pests have been reported to cause 65 to 100% yield losses (Anusha et al., 2016).

Various strategies to manage diseases of pulse cowpea include use of resistant germplasm, biocontrol agents, biopesticides and chemicals (Ekhuemelo et al., 2019; Modi and Tiwari, 2020; Enyiukwu​  et al., 2021). Although, negligible data are available on the extent and nature of damage caused by these diseases and pests in fodder cowpea in different regions. Quantifying the extent of losses attributed to diseases and pests is essential. Thus, the present study was focused to determine yield losses due to leaf blights, root rots, mosaics, sucking pests and defoliators in fodder cowpea in North-Western regions of India.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study areas/experimental sites
The field trials were conducted during the rainy seasons for three years from 2019 - 2021 as part of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Forage Crops and Utilization in five regions of India in cowpea. The study locations were PAU, Ludhiana in Punjab state possesses a humid and subtropical climate. CSKHPKV, Palampur in Himachal Pradesh is a mid-hill region with a sub-humid climate accompanied by high rainfall, OUAT, Bhubaneswar in Odisha possesses tropical climatic conditions, MPKV, Rahuri in Maharashtra is in semi-arid region with tropical climatic conditions and IGFRI, Jhansi in Uttar Pradesh is characterized by hot and semi-humid climate (Fig 1).

Fig 1: Map of India depicting the locations (states) of which data were considered for calculation of yield losses given as legends.



Field trials
 
The experiments were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two treatments per location in seven replications. The plot size was 5 x 5 m2 and seeds of fodder cowpea variety “Bundel Lobia-1” were sown in rows 30cm apart at the rate of 525 g per treatment (75 g per plot). The trials were conducted by following the region-specific package of practices for cultivating fodder cowpea. The location wise details of all treatments are given in Table 1. Two foliar sprays were given with first spray immediately after disease appearance/pest attack and second spray was given at 15 days interval after the first one. The foliar sprays were applied with hand-operated knapsack sprayer with the dose of each fungicide and amount of water as mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1: Details of treatments.


 
Disease assessment
 
The severity of root rot, cowpea mosaic virus, Cercospora leaf spot and anthracnose was assessed in each plot in 10 tagged cowpea plants. The percentage of diseased leaf area was assessed visually to rate the severity on cowpea plants and scoring was carried out after every foliar spray treatment at 35 and 55 days after sowing. The disease severities of cowpea yellow mosaic virus (YMV) were recorded on a 1-9 scale (Singh et al., 1988), Cercospora leaf spot and anthracnose on a 5-point scale (Oladiran and Oso 1983). The recorded severities were converted to percent disease severity index by using the given formula:
 
 
 
 
 
 
Disease incidence (%) of root rot was calculated by counting diseased and healthy plants in each of the quadrants and the incidence value obtained using the formula below:
 
 
 
 
 
Pest assessment
 
Observations on the incidences of aphids and defoliators were recorded on tagged plants. The sucking pests and defoliators were assessed based on the intensity of infestation (Kogan and Pitre, 1980). The aphid population was estimated using direct counts per stem or twig and the intensity of infestation on a 0-4 scale (Jayappa, 1984).
 
 
 
 
Estimation of green fodder yield and yield losses
 
The cowpea crop was harvested at 65 days after sowing and green fodder yield (GFY) (q ha-1) was recorded separately in protected and unprotected treatments. The green fodder yield losses were estimated by following the formula of Horn et al., (1995).
 
 

Data analysis
 
All experimental data on different factors obtained from different regions were analyzed with SAS software (version 9.3) using analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess the variability in yield losses due to diseases, pests and locations between the experimental repeats (p≤ 0.05). Means were compared using Fisher’s Least Significance Difference (LSD) test (α≤ 0.05).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Impact of treatments on different diseases of cowpea
 
Incidence of root rot disease caused by Rhizoctonia solani presented in Table 2 was recorded in three geographically different locations during 2019, 2020 and 2021 (Fig 2). The perusal of results indicated the significant differences in plots protected with fungicides or biocontrol agents and un-protected treatments with respect to cowpea root rot incidence. Least mean root rot incidence was observed at Bhubaneswar (4.04%) followed by Palampur (14.29%) as compared to un-protected plots that is 20.40 and 50.24 % respectively. However, at Ludhiana, root rot incidence was recorded in 2019 only and showed insignificant difference among the treated and untreated treatments.

Table 2: Disease incidence/ severity (%) of different diseases infecting cowpea and aphid population on cowpea from 2019 to 2021.



Fig 2: (a) Field view of root rot disease infecting cowpea and (b) Cowpea seedlings infected with root rot pathogen.


      
Disease severity of yellow mosaic virus was assessed at three locations namely Rahuri, Ludhiana and Palampur (Table 2, Fig 3). Average minimum severity was recorded at Rahuri that is 0.69%, Palampur (1.10%) in protected plots as compared to un-protected ones that showed 1.57 and 4.33 % severity of yellow mosaic disease respectively during three cropping seasons. Also exhibited significant differences among both the treatments at p<0.05. Although at Ludhiana location, the yellow mosaic virus severity was higher (6.69%) than other locations but significantly lower than untreated plots (14.49%).

Fig 3: Cowpea plants infected with cowpea mosaic virus disease.


      
Two foliar diseases such as Cercospora leaf spot and anthracnose were observed at three locations on cowpea crop (Table 2, Fig 4). At Rahuri and Palampur, Cercospora leaf spot and at Bhubaneswar, anthracnose was prevalent in fodder cowpea. Cercopsora leaf spot severity was less at Rahuri in both the treatments (0.75 and 1.31%). Whereas, at Palampur, it was 10.90 and 33.05 % in protected and un-protected plots. At Bhubaneswar, anthracnose severity was 12.69% in protected and 40.40% in un-protected plots.

Fig 4: Cowpea anthracnose symptoms on plants and fields view of cowpea plants infected with anthracnose disease.


 
Defoliators and aphids
 
Aphid population was assessed in two locations Rahuri and Bhubaneswar on cowpea twigs (Table 2, Fig 5). Mean maximum number of aphids per twig on cowpea were found at Rahuri (4.69) on cowpea plants protected with biocontrol agent Verticillium lecani and 27.41 aphids on un-protected plants. At Bhubaneswar, average number of aphids were 3.93 and 30.26 per twig in treated and untreated plots respectively.

Fig 5: Infestation of aphids on cowpea plants.


      
Damage caused by defoliators were found significantly less in plots protected with biocontrol agent Beauveria bassiana than un-protected plots (Fig 6 and 7). Lowest mean infestation by defoliators was recorded at Rahuri 1.31% against 3.55% in untreated plots followed by Bhubaneswar that is 1.61 and 4.94 % in treated and untreated treatments. At Ludhiana and Palampur locations, 2.10 and 4.86 percent damage was noticed in protected plots than un-protected plots (5.71 and 13.5%) respectively. Highest mean damage caused by defoliators was spotted at Jhansi (27.88%) in plots protected with B. bassiana than un-protected ones (42.36%). Foliar application of biocontrol agent provided significantly lesser percent infestation caused by defoliators in cowpea.

Fig 6: Infestation of cowpea defoliators on the plants of cowpea.



Fig 7: Effect of treatments on damage caused by defoliators with green fodder yield loss in cowpea at five locations.


 
Impact of diseases and pests on green fodder yield losses
 
A significant effect of fungicides/pesticides and biocontrol agents on green fodder yield was noticed at all the test locations during three crop seasons with a significant increase in green fodder yield (Table 3). Highest mean green fodder yield was found at Ludhiana (535.3 q ha-1) whereas at Bhubaneswar and Rahuri the green fodder yield was 346.7 and 316.1 q ha-1 respectively as compared to untreated plots that is 263.3 and 244.5 q ha-1.

Table 3: Effect of treatments on green fodder yield of cowpea from 2019 to 2021 at five locations.


      
The incidence of diseases and insect-pests showed significant (p<0.05) effects on green fodder yield losses at Rahuri, Jhansi and Palampur except Ludhiana and Bhubaneswar where it was insignificant (Table 4). Maximum yield losses due to root, rot, YMV, foliar diseases and defoliators were 46.21 and 42.04% in 2020 and 2021 at Palampur. Whereas lowest losses due to diseases and pests were observed at Ludhiana during all three crop seasons that is 18.21, 11.06 and 16.38% due to root rot, YMV and defoliators. Yield losses were high at Jhansi in 2019 (25.20%) due to defoliators, at Rahuri in 2021 (29.19%) due to root, rot, YMV, foliar diseases, aphids and defoliators and at Bhubaneswar in 2020 (25.24%) due to root, rot, foliar diseases, aphids and defoliators respectively. Hence, average green fodder yield losses due to diseases and pests were higher at Palampur and Rahuri.

Table 4: Impact on yield loss (%) from 2019 to 2021 at five locations.


 
Relationship between diseases, insect-pests and yield loss
 
The correlation was found negative/positive and highly significant at p=0.01 and p=0.05 between disease severity, pest damage values and green fodder yield losses at all five test locations (Table 5). At Ludhiana, correlation was found negatively significant between YMV and root rot that is -0.634 (p<0.05) and -0.872 (p<0.01), whereas, for defoliators correlation was highly positive and significant (p<0.0001) r=0.980. The value of R2 calculated was 0.402, 0.761 and 0.961 for YMV, root rot and defoliators respectively which indicated 40-96% variation in yield was due to incidence of YMV, root rot and defoliators. Likewise, at Rahuri, strong positively significant relationship was noticed between YMV, foliar diseases, defoliators, aphids and yield losses. The values of R2 revealed that defoliators and diseases contributed >98% towards variation in GFY losses. At Bhubaneswar, a strong positive and significant relationship was found between aphids and yield losses (r=0.984) at p<0.05. A negative significant correlation was seen between defoliators and yield loss (r=-0.947) at p<0.01 with R2 values of 0.969 and 0.896 respectively. Similarly, a strong positive correlation was detected between root rot and yield loss that is r=0.886 (p<0.01) with R2 value of 0.886. For foliar diseases it was 0.607 (p<0.01) and R2 value was 0.369. At Palampur, a high strong negative and significant relationship was detected between YMV and yield losses (r=-0.983) p<0.01 with R2 value of 0.967 followed by root rot and defoliators that is r=-0.950 (p<0.05) and r=-0.809 (p<0.01) with 0.902 and 0.654 values of R2. A negative and significant relation was observed between foliar diseases and yield losses r=-0.528 p<0.05). The value of R2 indicated 65 to 95% variation in GFY was due to YMV, root rot and defoliators. Likewise, at Jhansi, defoliators showed non-significant negative relation with GFY losses (r=-0.921) and value of R2 is 0.847.

Table 5: Correlation and Regression coefficient between yield loss and disease severity/incidence of diseases and insect-pests.


      
The present study provides an insight into GFY losses caused by major location specific diseases such as YMV, root rot, Cercospora leaf spot, anthracnose and pests like aphids and defoliators at five geographically different Indian test locations. Similar studies have been described to assess the losses due to diseases and pest incidence in pod and seed yield of cowpea (Baoua et al., 2021). However, scanty reports are available with respect to the losses in green fodder yield of fodder cowpea. High severity of cowpea mosaic increased the seed yield losses to more than 64% as recorded by Neya et al., (2015). Ganiyu et al., (2018) observed 23.67-46.67% incidence of anthracnose in plots treated with neem plant extracts as compared to control (80%) with more than 40% loss in pod number and seed yield. In the conducted studies, root rot incidence and foliar disease severity were ranged between 1.39 to 50.24% and 0.75 to 40.40% respectively in fodder cowpea. In this context, several workers have demonstrated the effect of plant extracts against anthracnose pathogen infecting cowpea (Lemos de Silva  et al., 2015; Enyiukwu et al., 2021). Application of fungicides belonging to group triazoles have been found effective against anthracnose with 16.94% disease severity (Dabbas et al., 2015). The previous reports suggesting 3.59-9.43% pod damage by defoliators in cowpea (Nghia and Srivastava, 2015). The losses in yield due to sucking pests like A. craccivora and Bemisia tabaci were observed in the range of 35% in cowpea by Anandmurthy et al., (2020). Our study also found that the use of BCAs namely B. bassiana and V. lecanii against sucking pests and defoliators followed by foliar spray of imidacloprid reduced the damage caused by these pests in cowpea. Swarnalata et al., (2015) noticed that the application of imidacloprid and V. lecanii to be the most effective treatments against cowpea aphids. Additionally, Saranya et al., (2010) and Sahayaraj and Namachivayam (2011) used V. lecanii fungus for spraying the cowpea crop for the management of aphids. Ozdemir et al., (2020) evaluated the two BCAs Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana against cowpea weevil and suggested that both the biocontrol agents showed reduction in aphid population. As presented in results, the yield loss caused by root rot, YMV, foliar diseases, aphids and defoliators were ranged between 11.06 to 46.21% over three seasons and five locations. These results confirmed that cowpea yield was reduced due to the attack of insects and caused yield losses over 90% (Raheja, 1976). Booker et al., (2005) noticed more than 66% yield loss in cowpea due to cowpea mosaic virus.
      
Disease and pest incidence was positively or negatively and significantly (p<0.05) correlated with GFY loss in all the locations. Nabirye et al., (2003) demonstrated the effect of thrips injury on cowpea and reported a significant negative relationship between density of thrips and cowpea yields. Also, detected more than 63% losses in cowpea yield as a result of thrips attack. Odulaja and Oghiakhe (1993) worked out the yield loss caused by Maruca testulalis pod borer in cowpea by using crop loss model. Alghali (1992) reduced the losses caused by thrips, sucking bugs of cowpea and recorded 50-100% reduction in the yield. According to our results, diseases and pests were both negatively and positively significantly correlated with yield losses. While according to Baoua et al., (2021) the correlation between predominant diseases (root rot, anthracnose and leaf spot), pests (Aphis craccivora and Maruca vitrata) and yield was significantly negative. In the study of Harouna et al., (2018), the cowpea defoliator was found responsible for reducing the yields by 17.5-26.5%. Similarly, losses caused by pod borers have been estimated between 20 and 82% (Zakari et al., 2019). Likewise, yield losses due to aerial blight, anthracnose and phoma blight in soybean were 41.0, 64.8 and 51.7% respectively (Pawan et al., 2023; Manzoor et al., 2023).

CONCLUSION

The present study provides estimates of green fodder yield losses due to diseases and pests in fodder cowpea. It also suggested lower incidence of diseases and pests in plots protected with fungicides and biocontrol agents than unprotected plots. The green fodder yield losses increased with increase in severity of diseases or incidence of pests and result in huge green fodder yield reduction. The correlation was found negative/positive and highly signifi-cant between disease severity, pest damage values and green fodder yield losses at all the test locations. Regar-ding the management of diseases and pests, the focus should be on timely application of management measures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) for its support through AICRP on Forage Crops and Utilization.
 
Authors’ contributions
 
N. R. Bhardwaj designed the experiment. Ashlesha Atri, D. K. Banyal, Sandip Landge and Arabinda Dhal conducted the field experiments for three years. Ashlesha, D. K. Banyal, Harpreet K. Cheema and N. R. Bhardwaj collected the data. Ashlesha Atri compiled, analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. Devinder Pal Singh reviewed the manuscript.
 
Data availability
 
The datasets used during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
 
Declarations
 
Funding
 
The study was not funded by any agency.
 
Compliance with ethical standards
 
The manuscript has not been submitted elsewhere.
 
Human and animal rights
 
This study did not involve human participants and/or animals.
 
Informed consent
 
All authors consent to this submission.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES


  1. Alghali, A.M. (1992). Insecticide application schedules to reduce grain yield losses caused by insects of cowpea in Nigeria. Interna- tional Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 13: 725-730.

  2. Anandmurthy, T., Parmar, G.M., Divyashree, H.J. (2020). Yield losses due to sucking pests in summer cowpea. International Journal of Chemical Studies. 8(2): 81-84.

  3. Anusha, C., Natikar, P.K., Balikai, R.A. (2016). Insect pests of cowpea and their management– A review. Journal of Experimental Zoology. 19: 635-642.

  4. Baoua, I., Rabe, M.M., Murdock, L.L., Baributsa, D. (2021). Cowpea production constraints on smallholders’ farms in Maradi and Zinder regions. Niger. Crop Protection. 142: 105533. 

  5. Biama, P.K., Faraj, A.K., Mutungi, C.M., Osuga, I.N., Kuruma, R.W. (2020). Nutritional and technological characteristics of new cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) lines and varieties grown in Eastern Kenya. Food and Nutrition Sciences. 11: 416-430. 

  6. Booker, H.M., Umaharan, P., McDavid, C.R. (2005). Effect of Cowpea severe mosaic virus on crop growth characteristics and yield of cowpea. Plant Disease. 89: 515-520.

  7. Dabbas, M.R., Kumar, S., Tiwari, P., Dutta, S.D. (2015). Integrated disease management of anthracnose of cowpea caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Internat. Journal of Plant Protection. 8(2): 261-264.

  8. Ekhuemelo, C., Igbor, H.U., Ocheje, S.J. (2019). Screening of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] varieties for resistance to leaf spot in Southern Guinea Savannah Agro- Ecology of Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Biotechnology. 36(2): 9-20.

  9. Enyiukwu, D.N., Amadioha, A.C., Ononuju, C.C. (2021). Evaluation of some pesticides of plant origin for control of anthracnose disease (Colletotrichum destructivum O’Gara) in cowpea. Asian Journal of Agriculture. 5: 4-11.

  10. Ganiyu, S.A., Popoola, A.R., Yussuf, T.F., Owolade, O.F., Gbolade, J.O. (2018). Management of anthracnose disease of cowpea with three plant leaf extracts for enhanced grain yield in Abeokuta, Nigeria. Nigerian Agricultural Journal. 49: 1-7.

  11. Gogile, A. andargie, M., Muthuswamy M. (2013). Screening selected genotypes of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] for salt tolerance during seedling growth stage. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 16: 671-679.

  12. Harouna, M.A., Baoua, I., Tamo, M. (2018). Etude des parametres de reproduction et de developpement de Clavigrallato mentosicollis Stal, 1855 (Hemiptera : Coreidae) et son incidence sur le rendement du ni´eb´e dans la r´egion de Maradi au Niger. Resume. 1855: 42-48.

  13. Horn, N.M., Reddy, S.V., Reddy, D.V.R. (1995). Assessment of yield losses caused by chickpea chlorotic dwarf geminivirus in chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in India. European Journal of Plant Pathology. 101: 221-224.

  14. Jayappa, B.G. (1984). Screening of cowpea germplasm for resistance to pod borers and aphids. M.Sc. (Agri.) Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, (India).

  15. Jha, U.C., Bohra, A., Pandey, S., Parida, S.K. (2020). Breeding, genetics and genomics approaches for improving fusarium wilt resistance in major grain legumes. Frontiers in Genetics. 11: 1001. 

  16. Kogan, M., Pitre, H.N. (1980). General Sampling Methods for Above Ground Populations of Soybean Arthropods, In: Sampling Methods in Soybean Entomology [(Eds). Kogan, M. and Herzog, D.C.], Springer-Verlag. New York. pp. 30-60.

  17. Lemos da Silva, J., Estevao de Souza, P., Alves, E., Pinto, J.E.B.P., Bertoluci, S.K.V., Freilas, M.L.O., Large de Andrade, C.C., Resende, M.L.V. (2015). Essential oil of Cymbopogon  flexuosus, Vernonia polyanthus and potassium phosphite in the control of bean anthracnose. Journal of Medicinal Plant Research. 3: 243-253.

  18. Manzoor, S., Bhat F.A., Baba Z.A., Rather T.R., Nisa R.T., Parveen S., Javaid I., Mushtaq S. (2023).  Phoma blight of soybean in kashmir: Etiology, relative yield losses and critical stage of Management Intervention. Legume Research. 46(12): 1674-1679. doi: 10.18805/LR-4869.

  19. Modi, M., Tiwari, S. (2020). Eco-friendly management of anthracnose disease of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) Sacc. and Magn. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences. 9(2): 2720-2725. 

  20. Nabirye, J., Nampala, P., Kyamanywa, S., Ogenga-Latigo, M.W., Wilson, H., Adipal, E. (2003). Determination of damage- yield loss relationships and economic injury levels of flower thrips on cowpea in eastern Uganda. Crop Protection. 22: 911-915.

  21. Neya, B.J., Zida, P.E., Sereme, D., Lund, O.S., Traore, O. (2015). Evaluation of yield losses caused by cowpea Aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV) in 21 cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.] varieties in Burkina Faso. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences. 18: 304-313.

  22. Nghia, N.T., Srivastava, P. (2015). Studies on relation between pod damage and yield loss in different cowpea cultivars at Pantnagar-Uttarakhand-India. Omonrice. 20: 81-84.

  23. Pawan, A.K., Shrivastava M.K., Singh, G. (2023). Identification of sources of resistance and yield loss assessment for aerial blight and anthracnose/pod blight diseases in soybean. Legume Research. 46(11): 1534-1540. doi: 10.18805/LR-4452.

  24. Odulaja, A., Oghiakhe, S. (1993). A nonlinear model describing yield loss in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) due to the legume pod borer, Marucate stulalis Geyer (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). International Journal of Pest Management. 39: 61-63.

  25. Oladiran, A.O., Oso, B.A. (1983). Comparative susceptibility of some cowpea lines to brown blotch. Tropical Grain Legume Bulletin. 28: 10-17.

  26. Ozdemir, I.O., Tuncer, C., Erper I., Kushiyev, R. (2020). Efficacy of the entomopathogenic fungi; Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae against the cowpea weevil, Callosobruchus maculatus F. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae). Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control. 30: 24.

  27. Raheja, A.K. (1976). Assessment of losses caused by insect pests to cowpeas in Northern Nigeria. International Journal of Pest Management. 22(2): 229-233.

  28. Sahayaraj, K., Namachivayam, S.K.R. (2011). Field evaluation of three entomopathogenic fungi on groundnut pest. Tropicultura.    29(3): 143-147.

  29. Saranya, S., Ushakumari, R., Jacob, S., Philip, B.M. (2010). Efficacy of different entomopathogenic fungi against cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora (Koch). Journal of Biopesticides. 3: 138-142.

  30. Singh, G., Kapoor, S. and Singh, K. (1988). Multiple disease resistance in mungbean with special emphasis on mungbean yellow mosaic virus. Mungbean. In : Proceedings of the Second International Symposium (Eds. Shanmugasundaram, S. and McLean, B.T.), Bangkok, Thailand, 16-20 November, 1987, AVRDC, 88-304, 290-296.

  31. Swarnalata, B., Patel, S.M., Pandya, H.V., Patel, S.D. (2015). Bioefficacy of insecticides against aphid (Aphis craccivora Koch) infesting cowpea [Vigna ungiculata (L.) Walp.]. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences. 10(1): 83-88.

  32. Zakari, O.A., Baoua, I., Amadou, L., Tam‘o, M., Pittendrigh, B.R. (2019). Les contraintesentomologiques de la culture du ni´eb´e et leur mode de gestion par les producteurs dans les r´egions deMaradi et Zinder au Niger. International Journal of Biological and Chemical Sciences. 13: 1286. 
Reviewed By

Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Editorial Board

    View all (0)