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Full Research Article

Comprehensive Clinicopathological Assessment of Anemia in Goats with Special Reference to Gastrointestinal Lesions

N
N.S. Baghel1
T
T.J. Sheikh1,*
S
Shailendra Singh1
R
Rajeev Ranjan2
B
Baleshwari Dixit3
A
Amit Kumar Jha4
R
Rajesh Ranjan5
K
Kanchan Walwadkar6
1Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
2Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
3Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
4Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
5Department of Veterinary Anatomy, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
6Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Goat rearing is an important livelihood activity in India. Anemia is a major health problem in goats, commonly associated with gastrointestinal parasitism, nutritional deficiencies and poor management practices. This study investigated the prevalence of anemia in goats and its associated gastrointestinal pathological changes.

Methods: A total of 496 goats of varying ages, sexes and breeds were examined for anemia, based on clinical examination and laboratory confirmation. Blood samples were collected for hematological analysis to classify the type of anemia and for biochemical analysis, while affected gastrointestinal tissues were processed for histopathological examination.

Result: Of 496 goats examined, 212 (42.74%) were anemic, with a higher prevalence in young goats. Affected animals showed pallor, weakness, exercise intolerance and mandibular edema. Significant reductions in haemoglobin, packed cell volume and erythrocyte count were observed, along with hypoproteinaemia, hypoalbuminaemia, hypocalcaemia, hypophosphataemia and elevated ALP and GGT activities. Gastrointestinal lesions and heavy parasitic infestations, particularly Haemonchus contortus and amphistomes, were common. Histopathology revealed villous atrophy, epithelial desquamation and inflammatory changes. The findings identify gastrointestinal parasitism and nutritional deficiencies as major contributors to caprine anemia.

INTRODUCTION

Goat rearing is a common livestock practice in India, primarily undertaken by small-scale marginal farmers, poor households and landless labourers, where it plays a vital role in their livelihood. The country ranks first globally in goat population, with 11.06 million in Madhya Pradesh. Studies indicate a high incidence of anemia in goats across India with a prevalence ranging from 35% to 65.13% (Velusamy et al., 2015). Major causes include internal and external parasitism, haemoprotozoan diseases and nutritional deficiencies, often linked to poor management practices such as lack of deworming and unhygienic housing conditions.

Anemia in goats is manifested by pallor of the mucous membranes, generalized weakness, lethargy, diminished exercise tolerance and inappetence. Affected animals often exhibit tachycardia and tachypnea and in some cases, systolic murmurs attributable to decreased blood viscosity. It is diagnosed when haemoglobin drops below the normal reference range. It can be classified based on its cause as haemorrhagic, haemolytic, or due to reduced erythrocyte production and based on bone marrow response as regenerative or non-regenerative. Reduced oxygen delivery stimulates renal erythropoietin production, promoting erythrocyte formation and increasing red blood cell numbers (Souma et al., 2015). In goats, nutritional deficiencies, particularly of iron, copper and cobalt, are important non-parasitic causes of anemia, as they impair haemoglobin synthesis and erythropoiesis. Prolonged consumption of mineral-deficient diets can lead to severe anemia and reduced productivity and reproductive performance (Ghadge, 2008). Early anemia often shows a non-regenerative pattern because several days are needed for mature red blood cells to enter the bloodstream. A regenerative response is more noticeable in cases of acute blood loss or haemolytic anemia, but is less likely in chronic illnesses or when bone marrow function is compromised (Johns and Heller, 2021). From a haematological perspective, the condition is characterized by reduced haemoglobin concentration, lowered packed cell volume and a decreased total erythrocyte count (Shinde and Rajguru, 2009). Gastrointestinal parasitism, in particular, remains a significant challenge for goat health and welfare. Although anemia in goats has been widely reported in India, most previous studies have primarily focused on its prevalence, clinical manifestations, or individual hematological alterations associated with parasitic infections and nutritional deficiencies. However, there is limited comprehensive information integrating hematological, biochemical and gastrointestinal pathological findings in naturally occurring cases of caprine anemia, particularly under field conditions in central India. Furthermore, the relationship between different morphological types of anemia and the associated gastrointestinal lesions contributing to disease pathogenesis remains inadequately characterized. This lack of integrated clinicopathological data restricts a complete understanding of the mechanisms underlying anemia and hinders the development of effective diagnostic and control strategies. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to bridge this knowledge gap by comprehensively evaluating the prevalence and morphological classification of anemia in goats, correlating hematobiochemical alterations with gross and histopathological gastrointestinal lesions and identifying the major pathological factors associated with the development of anemia in goats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area and sample size
 
The present study was carried out at the Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, India, in collaboration with slaughterhouses in and around Rewa city in 2022. A total of 496 goats of different local breeds, sexes and ages were examined to assess anemic status and gastrointestinal pathology. Samples were collected both from slaughterhouses, immediately after slaughter and from post-mortem cases brought to the Department of Veterinary Pathology. The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of each animal was examined for abnormalities in colour, size, shape, texture, or the presence of growths and endoparasites. Animals showing such gross changes were selected for further histopathological and laboratory analyses.
 
Identification of anemic goats and categorization
 
Diagnosis of anemia was based on clinical examination together with hematological evaluation. Goats were classified as anemic when hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV) and total erythrocyte count (TEC) values were below the established physiological reference ranges for goats (Jain, 1986; Smith and Sherman, 2009). Clinical indicators including pallor of mucous membranes, weakness, exercise intolerance and mandibular edema were considered supportive findings. Animals exhibiting reduced Hb, PCV and TEC values in conjunction with compatible clinical signs were categorized as anemic. Among the 496 goats examined, 212 (42.74%) were diagnosed as anemic based on clinical evaluation and haematological confirmation. During slaughter or necropsy, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) was examined and representative tissue samples from affected areas were collected. Samples were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for at least 24 hours prior to histological processing. Blood (5 ml) was collected from the jugular vein in sterile EDTA vials for haematological analysis. Haemoglobin (Hb), total erythrocyte count (TEC), differential leukocyte count (DLC), packed cell volume (PCV) and erythrocyte indices (MCV, MCH and MCHC) were determined using standard laboratory methods.
 
Biochemical, postmortem and histopathology analysis
 
For serum biochemistry, 5 ml blood (no anticoagulant) was collected, clotted at room temperature in a slant position and centrifuged. Serum was stored at -20°C until analysis. Parameters measured viz., alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), total protein, albumin, calcium, phosphorus and sodium, using an Erba semi-automatic analyzer with standard kits Young (1997). Parasitological assessment was carried out based on gross examination of the gastrointestinal tract during slaughter or necropsy and identification of visible parasites associated with pathological lesions. For histopathology, formalin-fixed tissues were trimmed, processed (graded alcohol, xylene, paraffin), cut at 4-5 µm (rotary microtome) and stained with H and E. Of the 212 anemic goats, serum samples from all animals were analyzed biochemically, while gastrointestinal tissue samples from 88 animals were subjected to histopathological examination. Statistical analysis (SPSS) was carried out by Snedecor and Cochran (1994) and data presented as means±SE with significance at P<0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 496 goats from farms and slaughterhouses in Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, were examined during the study. Out of these, 212 goats (42.74%) were diagnosed as anemic based on clinical and hematological evaluation. The prevalence observed indicates that anemia remains an important health problem in goats under field conditions. Age-wise analysis showed a higher occurrence in goats aged 0-12 months (23.58%) compared to those above 12 months of age (19.15%) (Table 1). Increased susceptibility of younger animals may be attributed to their developing immune status and higher vulnerability to parasitic infections and nutritional deficiencies. Similar age-related trends have been reported previously (Rajkhowa and Hazarika, 2002).

Table 1: Total number of anemic and non-anemic goats.


 
Clinical manifestation
 
Clinical examination of anemic goats revealed pallor of mucous membranes as the most frequent finding, observed in 85.38% of affected animals (Fig 1). Other common clinical signs included generalized weakness, reduced exercise tolerance and mandibular edema. Animals with concurrent gastrointestinal parasitism exhibited more severe clinical signs, likely due to chronic blood loss and nutrient depletion caused by hematophagous parasites such as Haemonchus contortus. Similar clinical observations have been reported in anemic goats affected by parasitic infestations (Saleem, 2000; Bhikhane et al., 2006; Sunder et al., 2025).

Fig 1: Photograph describing anemic condition from clinical manifestation.


 
Hemogram with morphological anemia
 
Significant alterations in hematological parameters were observed in anemic goats compared to healthy controls (Fig 3). In goats aged 0-12 months, mean hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume (PCV) and total erythrocyte count (TEC) were markedly reduced (6.82±0.08 g/dL, 19.41±0.24% and 8.95±0.12×106/µL, respectively) compared to non-anemic animals (11.05±0.05 g/dL, 29.97±0.15% and 10.53±0.08×106/µL, respectively). Similar reductions were observed in older anemic goats. These findings confirm impaired erythropoiesis and/or chronic blood loss associated with anemia and are consistent with previous reports in parasitized goats (Al-Obaidi et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2015). Furthermore, the lower PCV and hemoglobin levels are usually linked to gut parasite infections, because adult parasites feed on large amounts of blood from the infected animal’s gastrointestinal tract (Babar et al., 2015; Onzima et al., 2017; Rouatbi et al., 2016). Morphological evaluation revealed that microcytic normochromic anemia predominated in younger goats (56.41%), whereas normocytic normochromic anemia was more frequently observed in animals older than 12 months (52.63%). Peripheral blood smears of affected goats showed anisocytosis and poikilocytosis (Fig 2A), indicating variation in erythrocyte size and shape associated with anemia. On blood smear examination, older animals showed normal-sized red blood cells with normal color (normocytic normochromic), suggesting chronic illness or blood loss instead (Vasilatis and Christopher, 2023). The predominance of microcytic anemia in younger animals may reflect iron deficiency and increased nutritional demands during growth, while the normocytic normochromic pattern observed in adults is suggestive of chronic disease or persistent blood loss. This age-related difference is consistent with earlier findings that young animals are more prone to infections because their immune systems are still developing and less responsive (Asanji and Williams, 1987; Zvinorova et al., 2016). Adult animals may build up immunity to parasites through repeated exposure, so they can get rid of ingested parasites before an infection takes hold (Shah-Fischer and Say, 1989). Erythrocyte indices, including mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), were significantly lower in anemic goats than in healthy controls. These parameters were useful for characterizing the morphological type of anemia and supported the observed age-related differences. Leukocyte analysis revealed mild neutrophilia and monocytosis, accompanied by relative lymphopenia in anemic goats. Such alterations may be associated with chronic inflammatory responses and parasitic infections affecting the gastrointestinal tract. Similar hematological changes have been reported in small ruminants with gastrointestinal parasitism (Esmaeilnejad et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2015).

Fig 2: Photomicrograph shows blood picture of anemic goats.



Fig 3: Age wise comparative hematological values in anemic and non-anemic goats.


 
Biochemical analysis
 
Biochemical evaluation revealed significant alterations in serum parameters of anemic goats when compared with healthy controls (Fig 4). The most prominent findings were hypoproteinaemia and hypoalbuminaemia, with mean total protein and albumin concentrations significantly lower in anemic animals (6.20±0.10 g/dL and 2.87±0.04 g/dL, respectively) than in non-anemic goats (8.97±0.08 g/dL and 4.83±0.02 g/dL, respectively). These reductions may be associated with chronic gastrointestinal disorders, protein-losing enteropathy, impaired nutrient absorption and prolonged parasitic infestation (Fig 5A). Similar biochemical alterations have been reported in goats affected by gastrointestinal parasitism and chronic disease conditions (Moudgil et al., 2017). The marked reduction in serum albumin likely contributes to the development of peripheral oedema and mandibular edema/ascites observed in severely affected animals, as albumin plays a crucial role in maintaining osmotic pressure. Gastrointestinal parasites are the most common cause of haemorrhagic anaemia in goats (Johns and Heller, 2021) and heavy burdens of endoparasite (e.g Trichostrongylus sp.) as shown in Fig 5B cause diarrhoea and weight loss, with protein-losing enteropathy and malabsorption that decrease iron absorption and increase faecal iron loss (Jain, 1986; Zajac and Garza, 2020). Hepatic enzyme profiles showed significant alterations, with alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activities elevated by approximately 69% and 33%, respectively, in anemic goats. Increased enzyme activities may indicate tissue damage and metabolic disturbances associated with chronic gastrointestinal pathology and parasitic infections. Comparable elevations in hepatic enzyme activities have been documented in parasitized ruminants and are considered indicators of tissue injury and inflammatory processes (Radfar et al., 2014; Teleb et al., 2007). Additionally, slightly higher activities of GGT have been associated with hepatic involvement in goats exhibiting moderate to marked poikilocytosis as shown in Fig 2B, along with the presence of spiculated cells indicative of altered membrane lipid composition (Vasilatis and Christopher, 2023).

Fig 4: Comparative biochemical values in anemic and normal goats.



Fig 5: Photographs shows different parasitic infection in GI tract of anemic goats.



Significant reductions in serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations were also recorded in anemic goats. Mean calcium concentration decreased from 11.47 ±0.07 mg/dL in healthy goats to 8.78±0.09 mg/dL in anemic animals (23%), while phosphorus levels declined from 6.37±0.04 to 4.15±0.09 mmol/L (35%). These mineral imbalances likely result from a combination of impaired intestinal absorption, chronic blood loss caused by Haemonchus contortus infection in the abomasum (Fig  5C) and nutritional stress. Gastrointestinal parasitism is a major cause of haemorrhagic anaemia in goats and is frequently associated with hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia (Johns and Heller, 2021). Heavy endoparasite burdens induce protein-losing enteropathy and malabsorption (Fig 5C-D), reducing the uptake of essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus (Zajac and Garza, 2020). Similar decreases in serum mineral concentrations have been reported in parasitized ruminants (Abouzeid et al., 2010; Mavenyengwa et al., 2010), while nutritional stress has also been shown to adversely affect mineral status in livestock (Arfuso et al., 2016; Rathwa et al., 2017; Ribeiro et al., 2018). Hypophosphataemia is particularly important because phosphorus plays a critical role in erythrocyte metabolism and membrane integrity; its deficiency may worsen reduced red blood cell deformability and oxidative damage associated with iron deficiency (Vaya et al., 2005; Kempe et al., 2006; Nagababu et al., 2008). In younger goats, mineral deficiencies may exacerbate the physiological iron deficiency associated with low mineral intake during nursing and rapid growth, contributing to microcytic anaemia (Smith, 1997). In adult goats, hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia are more likely linked to chronic haemorrhage, reduced dietary intake and impaired nutrient absorption secondary to enteropathy (Smith and Sherman, 2009; Zajac and Garza, 2020). Overall, these findings indicate marked disturbances in mineral homeostasis in anemic goats and support the role of gastrointestinal pathology, parasitism and nutritional stress in the development and progression of anaemia.
 
Pathology of GI tract
 
Gross pathological examination of the gastrointestinal tract of anaemic goats revealed severe lesions associated with parasitic infestation (Fig 6 and 7). The small intestine exhibited the most pronounced pathological alterations, with 43.43% of affected goats showing mucosal thickening, ulcerative lesions, mucosal erosion, tissue necrosis and petechial haemorrhages (Fig 6 B, C). In several cases, catarrhal enteritis characterized by excessive accumulation of catarrhal mucus and heavy tapeworm infestation lodged within the intestinal lumen was observed (Fig 7A). The duodenum frequently exhibited haemorrhagic enteritis with marked mucosal bleeding, vascular congestion and extensive vascular damage associated with parasitic infestation (Fig  7B). These findings are in agreement with earlier reports describing similar intestinal lesions in amphistome, tapeworm (Monezia spp) and helminth-infected ruminants (Balachandran et al., 2010; Al-Ghamdi et al., 2024). The presence of live parasites attached to the intestinal mucosa, particularly within the duodenum and jejunum, provided direct evidence of parasite-mediated tissue injury and inflammation. The large intestine also demonstrated distinct pathological changes, including multiple nodular growths suggestive of chronic inflammatory or parasitic granulomatous lesions (Fig 6A). Petechial haemorrhages associated with nodular lesions indicated severe inflammatory and vascular injury (Fig 6C). In some animals, characteristic zebra-striping of the large intestine, manifested by alternating bands of congestion and pallor, was observed, indicating marked vascular disturbance (Fig 6D). Additionally, nodular enteritis and fibroblast-encapsulated abscesses were commonly encountered, likely representing chronic inflammatory reactions associated with embedded parasites or secondary bacterial infections. Although comparatively less severe, the stomach compartments exhibited notable lesions such as hyperkeratosis and focal necrosis of the ruminal mucosa at sites of parasite attachment.

Fig 6: Gross lesions in intestine of anemic goats.



Fig 7: A: Small intestine shows catarrhal enteritis with tapeworm infestation, characterized by excessive catarrhal mucus accumulation, insert shows small intestine reveals prominent tapeworm infestation lodged into the intestinal. B: Duodenum exhibits haemorrhagic enteritis with marked mucosal bleeding. Insert image after opening small intestine shows haemorrhagic enteritis with extensive vascular damage, congestion and tapeworm.



Histopathological evaluation provided microscopic corroboration of the gross findings. Small intestinal sections from affected goats consistently demonstrated villous atrophy, epithelial desquamation (Fig 8D) and dense inflammatory infiltrates (Fig 8A) composed predominantly of neutrophils and eosinophils. These changes reflect the combined effects of mechanical trauma from parasitic attachment and the host’s immune response to parasite antigens. Similar histopathological alterations have been consistently reported in parasitized small ruminants across different regions (Tiwari et al., 2018; Zainab and Khan, 2016). The large intestine exhibited distinct pathological changes, with nodular enteritis (Fig 8 B and C) and fibroblast-encapsulated abscesses being particularly prevalent. These lesions likely represent chronic inflammatory responses to embedded parasites or secondary bacterial infections. Microscopic examination revealed loss of mucosal architecture, goblet cell hyperplasia and mononuclear cell infiltration in the lamina propria. Similar pathological alterations have been reported in goats infected with Trichuris ovis, indicating common pathological pathways across different parasitic infestations (Nath et al., 2011).

Fig 8: Histopathological slides of GI tract of anemic goat.



The findings have important implications for goat health and management. The high prevalence of anemia, particularly in young goats, underscores the need for effective parasite control, mineral supplementation and improved husbandry practices. Age-related variations in anemia suggest that diagnostic and therapeutic approaches should be tailored to the animal’s age and production stage. Future studies should investigate anemia progression, its impact on productivity and host–parasite interactions to support the development of targeted control strategies.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive study demonstrates that caprine anemia is a multifactorial condition with significant prevalence in Indian goat populations. The integration of clinical, haematological, biochemical and pathological findings provides a holistic understanding of the condition’s pathogenesis. The distinct age-related patterns in disease presentation underscore the importance of tailored management strategies. These findings contribute substantially to the existing body of knowledge on caprine anemia and provide a foundation for developing more effective prevention and treatment protocols.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was supported by Department of veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and A.H, NDVSU, Rewa, M.P., India.
 
Ethical approval
 
No ethical approval is required for this study.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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    Full Research Article

    Comprehensive Clinicopathological Assessment of Anemia in Goats with Special Reference to Gastrointestinal Lesions

    N
    N.S. Baghel1
    T
    T.J. Sheikh1,*
    S
    Shailendra Singh1
    R
    Rajeev Ranjan2
    B
    Baleshwari Dixit3
    A
    Amit Kumar Jha4
    R
    Rajesh Ranjan5
    K
    Kanchan Walwadkar6
    1Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    2Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    3Department of Veterinary Public Health, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    4Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    5Department of Veterinary Anatomy, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    6Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Rewa-486 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Goat rearing is an important livelihood activity in India. Anemia is a major health problem in goats, commonly associated with gastrointestinal parasitism, nutritional deficiencies and poor management practices. This study investigated the prevalence of anemia in goats and its associated gastrointestinal pathological changes.

    Methods: A total of 496 goats of varying ages, sexes and breeds were examined for anemia, based on clinical examination and laboratory confirmation. Blood samples were collected for hematological analysis to classify the type of anemia and for biochemical analysis, while affected gastrointestinal tissues were processed for histopathological examination.

    Result: Of 496 goats examined, 212 (42.74%) were anemic, with a higher prevalence in young goats. Affected animals showed pallor, weakness, exercise intolerance and mandibular edema. Significant reductions in haemoglobin, packed cell volume and erythrocyte count were observed, along with hypoproteinaemia, hypoalbuminaemia, hypocalcaemia, hypophosphataemia and elevated ALP and GGT activities. Gastrointestinal lesions and heavy parasitic infestations, particularly Haemonchus contortus and amphistomes, were common. Histopathology revealed villous atrophy, epithelial desquamation and inflammatory changes. The findings identify gastrointestinal parasitism and nutritional deficiencies as major contributors to caprine anemia.

    INTRODUCTION

    Goat rearing is a common livestock practice in India, primarily undertaken by small-scale marginal farmers, poor households and landless labourers, where it plays a vital role in their livelihood. The country ranks first globally in goat population, with 11.06 million in Madhya Pradesh. Studies indicate a high incidence of anemia in goats across India with a prevalence ranging from 35% to 65.13% (Velusamy et al., 2015). Major causes include internal and external parasitism, haemoprotozoan diseases and nutritional deficiencies, often linked to poor management practices such as lack of deworming and unhygienic housing conditions.

    Anemia in goats is manifested by pallor of the mucous membranes, generalized weakness, lethargy, diminished exercise tolerance and inappetence. Affected animals often exhibit tachycardia and tachypnea and in some cases, systolic murmurs attributable to decreased blood viscosity. It is diagnosed when haemoglobin drops below the normal reference range. It can be classified based on its cause as haemorrhagic, haemolytic, or due to reduced erythrocyte production and based on bone marrow response as regenerative or non-regenerative. Reduced oxygen delivery stimulates renal erythropoietin production, promoting erythrocyte formation and increasing red blood cell numbers (Souma et al., 2015). In goats, nutritional deficiencies, particularly of iron, copper and cobalt, are important non-parasitic causes of anemia, as they impair haemoglobin synthesis and erythropoiesis. Prolonged consumption of mineral-deficient diets can lead to severe anemia and reduced productivity and reproductive performance (Ghadge, 2008). Early anemia often shows a non-regenerative pattern because several days are needed for mature red blood cells to enter the bloodstream. A regenerative response is more noticeable in cases of acute blood loss or haemolytic anemia, but is less likely in chronic illnesses or when bone marrow function is compromised (Johns and Heller, 2021). From a haematological perspective, the condition is characterized by reduced haemoglobin concentration, lowered packed cell volume and a decreased total erythrocyte count (Shinde and Rajguru, 2009). Gastrointestinal parasitism, in particular, remains a significant challenge for goat health and welfare. Although anemia in goats has been widely reported in India, most previous studies have primarily focused on its prevalence, clinical manifestations, or individual hematological alterations associated with parasitic infections and nutritional deficiencies. However, there is limited comprehensive information integrating hematological, biochemical and gastrointestinal pathological findings in naturally occurring cases of caprine anemia, particularly under field conditions in central India. Furthermore, the relationship between different morphological types of anemia and the associated gastrointestinal lesions contributing to disease pathogenesis remains inadequately characterized. This lack of integrated clinicopathological data restricts a complete understanding of the mechanisms underlying anemia and hinders the development of effective diagnostic and control strategies. Therefore, the present investigation was undertaken to bridge this knowledge gap by comprehensively evaluating the prevalence and morphological classification of anemia in goats, correlating hematobiochemical alterations with gross and histopathological gastrointestinal lesions and identifying the major pathological factors associated with the development of anemia in goats.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Study area and sample size
     
    The present study was carried out at the Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, India, in collaboration with slaughterhouses in and around Rewa city in 2022. A total of 496 goats of different local breeds, sexes and ages were examined to assess anemic status and gastrointestinal pathology. Samples were collected both from slaughterhouses, immediately after slaughter and from post-mortem cases brought to the Department of Veterinary Pathology. The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of each animal was examined for abnormalities in colour, size, shape, texture, or the presence of growths and endoparasites. Animals showing such gross changes were selected for further histopathological and laboratory analyses.
     
    Identification of anemic goats and categorization
     
    Diagnosis of anemia was based on clinical examination together with hematological evaluation. Goats were classified as anemic when hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV) and total erythrocyte count (TEC) values were below the established physiological reference ranges for goats (Jain, 1986; Smith and Sherman, 2009). Clinical indicators including pallor of mucous membranes, weakness, exercise intolerance and mandibular edema were considered supportive findings. Animals exhibiting reduced Hb, PCV and TEC values in conjunction with compatible clinical signs were categorized as anemic. Among the 496 goats examined, 212 (42.74%) were diagnosed as anemic based on clinical evaluation and haematological confirmation. During slaughter or necropsy, the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) was examined and representative tissue samples from affected areas were collected. Samples were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for at least 24 hours prior to histological processing. Blood (5 ml) was collected from the jugular vein in sterile EDTA vials for haematological analysis. Haemoglobin (Hb), total erythrocyte count (TEC), differential leukocyte count (DLC), packed cell volume (PCV) and erythrocyte indices (MCV, MCH and MCHC) were determined using standard laboratory methods.
     
    Biochemical, postmortem and histopathology analysis
     
    For serum biochemistry, 5 ml blood (no anticoagulant) was collected, clotted at room temperature in a slant position and centrifuged. Serum was stored at -20°C until analysis. Parameters measured viz., alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT), total protein, albumin, calcium, phosphorus and sodium, using an Erba semi-automatic analyzer with standard kits Young (1997). Parasitological assessment was carried out based on gross examination of the gastrointestinal tract during slaughter or necropsy and identification of visible parasites associated with pathological lesions. For histopathology, formalin-fixed tissues were trimmed, processed (graded alcohol, xylene, paraffin), cut at 4-5 µm (rotary microtome) and stained with H and E. Of the 212 anemic goats, serum samples from all animals were analyzed biochemically, while gastrointestinal tissue samples from 88 animals were subjected to histopathological examination. Statistical analysis (SPSS) was carried out by Snedecor and Cochran (1994) and data presented as means±SE with significance at P<0.05.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    A total of 496 goats from farms and slaughterhouses in Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, were examined during the study. Out of these, 212 goats (42.74%) were diagnosed as anemic based on clinical and hematological evaluation. The prevalence observed indicates that anemia remains an important health problem in goats under field conditions. Age-wise analysis showed a higher occurrence in goats aged 0-12 months (23.58%) compared to those above 12 months of age (19.15%) (Table 1). Increased susceptibility of younger animals may be attributed to their developing immune status and higher vulnerability to parasitic infections and nutritional deficiencies. Similar age-related trends have been reported previously (Rajkhowa and Hazarika, 2002).

    Table 1: Total number of anemic and non-anemic goats.


     
    Clinical manifestation
     
    Clinical examination of anemic goats revealed pallor of mucous membranes as the most frequent finding, observed in 85.38% of affected animals (Fig 1). Other common clinical signs included generalized weakness, reduced exercise tolerance and mandibular edema. Animals with concurrent gastrointestinal parasitism exhibited more severe clinical signs, likely due to chronic blood loss and nutrient depletion caused by hematophagous parasites such as Haemonchus contortus. Similar clinical observations have been reported in anemic goats affected by parasitic infestations (Saleem, 2000; Bhikhane et al., 2006; Sunder et al., 2025).

    Fig 1: Photograph describing anemic condition from clinical manifestation.


     
    Hemogram with morphological anemia
     
    Significant alterations in hematological parameters were observed in anemic goats compared to healthy controls (Fig 3). In goats aged 0-12 months, mean hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume (PCV) and total erythrocyte count (TEC) were markedly reduced (6.82±0.08 g/dL, 19.41±0.24% and 8.95±0.12×106/µL, respectively) compared to non-anemic animals (11.05±0.05 g/dL, 29.97±0.15% and 10.53±0.08×106/µL, respectively). Similar reductions were observed in older anemic goats. These findings confirm impaired erythropoiesis and/or chronic blood loss associated with anemia and are consistent with previous reports in parasitized goats (Al-Obaidi et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2015). Furthermore, the lower PCV and hemoglobin levels are usually linked to gut parasite infections, because adult parasites feed on large amounts of blood from the infected animal’s gastrointestinal tract (Babar et al., 2015; Onzima et al., 2017; Rouatbi et al., 2016). Morphological evaluation revealed that microcytic normochromic anemia predominated in younger goats (56.41%), whereas normocytic normochromic anemia was more frequently observed in animals older than 12 months (52.63%). Peripheral blood smears of affected goats showed anisocytosis and poikilocytosis (Fig 2A), indicating variation in erythrocyte size and shape associated with anemia. On blood smear examination, older animals showed normal-sized red blood cells with normal color (normocytic normochromic), suggesting chronic illness or blood loss instead (Vasilatis and Christopher, 2023). The predominance of microcytic anemia in younger animals may reflect iron deficiency and increased nutritional demands during growth, while the normocytic normochromic pattern observed in adults is suggestive of chronic disease or persistent blood loss. This age-related difference is consistent with earlier findings that young animals are more prone to infections because their immune systems are still developing and less responsive (Asanji and Williams, 1987; Zvinorova et al., 2016). Adult animals may build up immunity to parasites through repeated exposure, so they can get rid of ingested parasites before an infection takes hold (Shah-Fischer and Say, 1989). Erythrocyte indices, including mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), were significantly lower in anemic goats than in healthy controls. These parameters were useful for characterizing the morphological type of anemia and supported the observed age-related differences. Leukocyte analysis revealed mild neutrophilia and monocytosis, accompanied by relative lymphopenia in anemic goats. Such alterations may be associated with chronic inflammatory responses and parasitic infections affecting the gastrointestinal tract. Similar hematological changes have been reported in small ruminants with gastrointestinal parasitism (Esmaeilnejad et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2015).

    Fig 2: Photomicrograph shows blood picture of anemic goats.



    Fig 3: Age wise comparative hematological values in anemic and non-anemic goats.


     
    Biochemical analysis
     
    Biochemical evaluation revealed significant alterations in serum parameters of anemic goats when compared with healthy controls (Fig 4). The most prominent findings were hypoproteinaemia and hypoalbuminaemia, with mean total protein and albumin concentrations significantly lower in anemic animals (6.20±0.10 g/dL and 2.87±0.04 g/dL, respectively) than in non-anemic goats (8.97±0.08 g/dL and 4.83±0.02 g/dL, respectively). These reductions may be associated with chronic gastrointestinal disorders, protein-losing enteropathy, impaired nutrient absorption and prolonged parasitic infestation (Fig 5A). Similar biochemical alterations have been reported in goats affected by gastrointestinal parasitism and chronic disease conditions (Moudgil et al., 2017). The marked reduction in serum albumin likely contributes to the development of peripheral oedema and mandibular edema/ascites observed in severely affected animals, as albumin plays a crucial role in maintaining osmotic pressure. Gastrointestinal parasites are the most common cause of haemorrhagic anaemia in goats (Johns and Heller, 2021) and heavy burdens of endoparasite (e.g Trichostrongylus sp.) as shown in Fig 5B cause diarrhoea and weight loss, with protein-losing enteropathy and malabsorption that decrease iron absorption and increase faecal iron loss (Jain, 1986; Zajac and Garza, 2020). Hepatic enzyme profiles showed significant alterations, with alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) activities elevated by approximately 69% and 33%, respectively, in anemic goats. Increased enzyme activities may indicate tissue damage and metabolic disturbances associated with chronic gastrointestinal pathology and parasitic infections. Comparable elevations in hepatic enzyme activities have been documented in parasitized ruminants and are considered indicators of tissue injury and inflammatory processes (Radfar et al., 2014; Teleb et al., 2007). Additionally, slightly higher activities of GGT have been associated with hepatic involvement in goats exhibiting moderate to marked poikilocytosis as shown in Fig 2B, along with the presence of spiculated cells indicative of altered membrane lipid composition (Vasilatis and Christopher, 2023).

    Fig 4: Comparative biochemical values in anemic and normal goats.



    Fig 5: Photographs shows different parasitic infection in GI tract of anemic goats.



    Significant reductions in serum calcium and phosphorus concentrations were also recorded in anemic goats. Mean calcium concentration decreased from 11.47 ±0.07 mg/dL in healthy goats to 8.78±0.09 mg/dL in anemic animals (23%), while phosphorus levels declined from 6.37±0.04 to 4.15±0.09 mmol/L (35%). These mineral imbalances likely result from a combination of impaired intestinal absorption, chronic blood loss caused by Haemonchus contortus infection in the abomasum (Fig  5C) and nutritional stress. Gastrointestinal parasitism is a major cause of haemorrhagic anaemia in goats and is frequently associated with hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia (Johns and Heller, 2021). Heavy endoparasite burdens induce protein-losing enteropathy and malabsorption (Fig 5C-D), reducing the uptake of essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus (Zajac and Garza, 2020). Similar decreases in serum mineral concentrations have been reported in parasitized ruminants (Abouzeid et al., 2010; Mavenyengwa et al., 2010), while nutritional stress has also been shown to adversely affect mineral status in livestock (Arfuso et al., 2016; Rathwa et al., 2017; Ribeiro et al., 2018). Hypophosphataemia is particularly important because phosphorus plays a critical role in erythrocyte metabolism and membrane integrity; its deficiency may worsen reduced red blood cell deformability and oxidative damage associated with iron deficiency (Vaya et al., 2005; Kempe et al., 2006; Nagababu et al., 2008). In younger goats, mineral deficiencies may exacerbate the physiological iron deficiency associated with low mineral intake during nursing and rapid growth, contributing to microcytic anaemia (Smith, 1997). In adult goats, hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia are more likely linked to chronic haemorrhage, reduced dietary intake and impaired nutrient absorption secondary to enteropathy (Smith and Sherman, 2009; Zajac and Garza, 2020). Overall, these findings indicate marked disturbances in mineral homeostasis in anemic goats and support the role of gastrointestinal pathology, parasitism and nutritional stress in the development and progression of anaemia.
     
    Pathology of GI tract
     
    Gross pathological examination of the gastrointestinal tract of anaemic goats revealed severe lesions associated with parasitic infestation (Fig 6 and 7). The small intestine exhibited the most pronounced pathological alterations, with 43.43% of affected goats showing mucosal thickening, ulcerative lesions, mucosal erosion, tissue necrosis and petechial haemorrhages (Fig 6 B, C). In several cases, catarrhal enteritis characterized by excessive accumulation of catarrhal mucus and heavy tapeworm infestation lodged within the intestinal lumen was observed (Fig 7A). The duodenum frequently exhibited haemorrhagic enteritis with marked mucosal bleeding, vascular congestion and extensive vascular damage associated with parasitic infestation (Fig  7B). These findings are in agreement with earlier reports describing similar intestinal lesions in amphistome, tapeworm (Monezia spp) and helminth-infected ruminants (Balachandran et al., 2010; Al-Ghamdi et al., 2024). The presence of live parasites attached to the intestinal mucosa, particularly within the duodenum and jejunum, provided direct evidence of parasite-mediated tissue injury and inflammation. The large intestine also demonstrated distinct pathological changes, including multiple nodular growths suggestive of chronic inflammatory or parasitic granulomatous lesions (Fig 6A). Petechial haemorrhages associated with nodular lesions indicated severe inflammatory and vascular injury (Fig 6C). In some animals, characteristic zebra-striping of the large intestine, manifested by alternating bands of congestion and pallor, was observed, indicating marked vascular disturbance (Fig 6D). Additionally, nodular enteritis and fibroblast-encapsulated abscesses were commonly encountered, likely representing chronic inflammatory reactions associated with embedded parasites or secondary bacterial infections. Although comparatively less severe, the stomach compartments exhibited notable lesions such as hyperkeratosis and focal necrosis of the ruminal mucosa at sites of parasite attachment.

    Fig 6: Gross lesions in intestine of anemic goats.



    Fig 7: A: Small intestine shows catarrhal enteritis with tapeworm infestation, characterized by excessive catarrhal mucus accumulation, insert shows small intestine reveals prominent tapeworm infestation lodged into the intestinal. B: Duodenum exhibits haemorrhagic enteritis with marked mucosal bleeding. Insert image after opening small intestine shows haemorrhagic enteritis with extensive vascular damage, congestion and tapeworm.



    Histopathological evaluation provided microscopic corroboration of the gross findings. Small intestinal sections from affected goats consistently demonstrated villous atrophy, epithelial desquamation (Fig 8D) and dense inflammatory infiltrates (Fig 8A) composed predominantly of neutrophils and eosinophils. These changes reflect the combined effects of mechanical trauma from parasitic attachment and the host’s immune response to parasite antigens. Similar histopathological alterations have been consistently reported in parasitized small ruminants across different regions (Tiwari et al., 2018; Zainab and Khan, 2016). The large intestine exhibited distinct pathological changes, with nodular enteritis (Fig 8 B and C) and fibroblast-encapsulated abscesses being particularly prevalent. These lesions likely represent chronic inflammatory responses to embedded parasites or secondary bacterial infections. Microscopic examination revealed loss of mucosal architecture, goblet cell hyperplasia and mononuclear cell infiltration in the lamina propria. Similar pathological alterations have been reported in goats infected with Trichuris ovis, indicating common pathological pathways across different parasitic infestations (Nath et al., 2011).

    Fig 8: Histopathological slides of GI tract of anemic goat.



    The findings have important implications for goat health and management. The high prevalence of anemia, particularly in young goats, underscores the need for effective parasite control, mineral supplementation and improved husbandry practices. Age-related variations in anemia suggest that diagnostic and therapeutic approaches should be tailored to the animal’s age and production stage. Future studies should investigate anemia progression, its impact on productivity and host–parasite interactions to support the development of targeted control strategies.

    CONCLUSION

    This comprehensive study demonstrates that caprine anemia is a multifactorial condition with significant prevalence in Indian goat populations. The integration of clinical, haematological, biochemical and pathological findings provides a holistic understanding of the condition’s pathogenesis. The distinct age-related patterns in disease presentation underscore the importance of tailored management strategies. These findings contribute substantially to the existing body of knowledge on caprine anemia and provide a foundation for developing more effective prevention and treatment protocols.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    This work was supported by Department of veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and A.H, NDVSU, Rewa, M.P., India.
     
    Ethical approval
     
    No ethical approval is required for this study.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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