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Full Research Article

Assessment of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Backyard Poultry Rearing Systems of Chhattisgarh, India

N
Namita Shukla1,*
K
Kranti Sharma2
A
Ashutosh Tiwari3
A
Aakansha Tiwari4
O
Om Prakash5
Y
Y.K. Naik6
1Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
2Department of Panchagavya Research and Extension Centre, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
3Department of Animal Biochemistry and Physiology, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
4Department of Veterinary Microbiology, G.B.P.U.A.T., Pantnagar-263 145, Uttarakhand, India.
5Department of Veterinary Parasitology, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
6Department of Dairy Chemistry, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism is a major constraint affecting backyard poultry production in rural and tribal farming systems of the tropics. The present study was undertaken to assess the prevalence, diversity and associated risk factors of GI parasites in backyard poultry systems of Chhattisgarh, India.

Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out by the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg, in selected rural villages of Chhattisgarh during the research period January-June 2025. A total of 400 faecal samples were examined using direct smear, saturated salt flotation, sedimentation, McMaster egg-counting and oocyst sporulation techniques. Chi-square (χ2) analyses and Wilson 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed for inferential evaluation.

Result: The overall prevalence was 64.50% (258/400; 95% CI: 59.69-69.03). Protozoa (34.25%) predominated, followed by nematodes (22.75%) and cestodes (7.50%). Eimeria spp. (28.50%), Ascaridia galli (18.25%) and Heterakis gallinarum (14.50%) were the most prevalent species. Prevalence differed significantly by age (χ2 = 18.80, df = 2, p<0.001), season (χ2 = 9.27, df = 2, p=0.010) and management system (χ2 = 22.71, df = 1, p<0.001), with chicks, monsoon-season birds and scavenging flocks worst affected. GI parasitism is highly prevalent and economically important in backyard poultry of Chhattisgarh; strategic deworming, improved hygiene, biosecurity-aware management and farmer awareness are recommended for sustained control.

INTRODUCTION

Backyard poultry farming is vital to the livelihood and nutritional security of rural and tribal households in India, providing income, employment, high-quality animal protein and socio-economic empowerment for small and marginal farmers (Permin and Hansen, 1998; Yadav et al., 2024). These low-input systems are characterised by scavenging feeding, poor housing, limited veterinary care and minimal biosecurity (Singh et al., 2021; Coroian et al., 2024; Cantin-Rosas et al., 2025).
       
Among the diseases affecting backyard birds, gastrointestinal parasitic infections are one of the most important production-limiting factors, adversely affecting growth, feed conversion efficiency, egg production and overall health (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016; Shohana et al., 2023). The most commonly recorded GI parasites of poultry include protozoa such as Eimeria spp. and helminths including Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum, Capillaria spp. and Raillietina spp. (Singh et al., 2021; Tu et al., 2019; Bharathi et al., 2024; Shandey et al., 2024). These parasites cause enteritis, anaemia, diarrhoea, poor weight gain and reduced egg production, with severe coccidial outbreaks causing mortality, particularly in young birds (Badri et al., 2024; Attia et al., 2025). Free-range scavenging birds are particularly vulnerable due to constant exposure to infective stages and intermediate hosts (Montes-Vergara et al., 2021; Coroian et al., 2024).
       
The prevalence of GI parasites is influenced by climate, age, season, management practices, sanitation and deworming status (Singh et al., 2021; Khursheed et al., 2022; Cantin-Rosas et al., 2025). Tropical climatic conditions favour development and survival of infective parasitic stages (Permin and Hansen, 1998; Badri et al., 2024). In Chhattisgarh, Eimeria species circulating in poultry have recently been characterised at the molecular level (Shandey et al., 2024), but information on the broader spectrum of helminth and protozoan parasites in backyard birds of the state remains limited. GI parasitism also imposes substantial economic costs on rural households through reduced productivity and recurrent treatment expenses (Yadav et al., 2024; Attia et al., 2025). The present study was therefore undertaken to determine the prevalence and risk factors of GI parasites in backyard poultry systems of Chhattisgarh.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study area and institute
 
The present study was conducted by the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya (DSVCKV), Anjora, Durg, Chhattisgarh, India, in selected rural villages of Chhattisgarh. The region experiences tropical climatic conditions with hot summers, moderate winters and a humid monsoon. Backyard poultry farming is commonly practised in the study area under traditional scavenging systems (Shandey et al., 2024).
 
Study design and research period
 
A cross-sectional study was conducted over a period of six months from January 2025 to June 2025 (research period: January-June 2025), covering the late winter, summer and onset of monsoon seasons. Birds of different age groups and both sexes were included in the investigation.
 
Sample size and sampling strategy
 
The sample size was calculated using the formula of Thrusfield (2018), assuming an expected prevalence of 50%, 95% confidence level and 5% absolute precision, which gave a minimum requirement of 384 birds; 400 birds were sampled to improve statistical precision. A multistage random sampling technique was adopted, with villages selected randomly and households rearing backyard poultry randomly chosen within each village. Information on management, feeding, deworming history and housing was recorded using a structured, pre-tested questionnaire (Singh et al., 2021).
 
Collection and laboratory examination of samples
 
Approximately 5-10 g of fresh faecal samples were collected from the cloaca or freshly voided droppings using sterile gloves, transported under refrigerated conditions (4oC) to the laboratory and examined within 24 hours (Soulsby, 1982; Shandey et al., 2024). Direct smear (with normal saline), saturated salt (NaCl) flotation for nematode and cestode eggs, sedimentation for trematode eggs and McMaster egg-counting for quantitative EPG estimation were performed following standard procedures (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016; Bharathi et al., 2024).
       
Samples positive for Eimeria oocysts were sporulated in 2.5% potassium dichromate solution at 27-29oC and species identification was based on sporulated oocyst morphology (Soulsby, 1982; Shandey et al., 2024). It is acknowledged that species-level identification of Eimeria was based solely on morphometric characters and molecular confirmation was not undertaken; the implications of this limitation are addressed in the Discussion (Khursheed et al., 2022; Shandey et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2025).
 
Statistical analysis
 
Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and analysed using SPSS version 26.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Prevalence was expressed as percentage with the 95% Wilson confidence interval (CI). The chi-square (χ2) test, with exact statistics, degrees of freedom (df) and p-values, was used to compare prevalence among age groups, sexes, seasons and management systems. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant (Thrusfield, 2018).
 
Ethical Considerations and farmer consent
 
The study involved only non-invasive collection of freshly voided faecal samples and no procedure causing pain or distress to the birds was performed; all sampling was conducted in accordance with institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals and standard parasitological practice (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016). The purpose, scope and procedure of the study were explained to each household owner in the local language and informed verbal consent was obtained prior to sampling. Sampling and questionnaire-based data collection were carried out only from households whose owners voluntarily agreed to participate and the confidentiality of the information provided by the farmers’ was duly maintained.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Overall prevalence
 
Of 400 faecal samples examined, 258 were positive for one or more GI parasites, giving an overall prevalence of 64.50% (95% CI: 59.69-69.03; Table 1). This is consistent with the moderate-to-high prevalence reported in recent studies on backyard chickens in India and South Asia (Singh et al., 2021; Bharathi et al., 2024; Yadav et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025) and with comparable free-range systems described from China and Romania (Tu et al., 2019; Coroian et al., 2024).

Table 1: Overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in backyard poultry (n = 400).


 
Parasite groups and species-wise prevalence
 
Protozoa (34.25%, 95% CI: 29.77-39.03) predominated, followed by nematodes (22.75%, 95% CI: 18.91-27.11), cestodes (7.50%, 95% CI: 5.30-10.50) and mixed infections (12.00%, 95% CI: 9.17-15.55); no trematodes were detected (Table 2). The species-wise distribution is presented in Table 3. A similar species composition has been reported in backyard chickens of India, China, Bangladesh and Africa (Tu et al., 2019; Khursheed et al., 2022; Bharathi et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025; Midala et al., 2025).         

Table 2: Prevalence of different parasite groups (n = 400).



Table 3: Species-wise prevalence of identified GI parasites (n = 400).


       
The predominance of Eimeria spp. confirms that coccidiosis remains one of the most important parasitic diseases of poultry globally (Badri et al., 2024). E. tenella, in particular, is highly virulent and elicits a measurable splenic immune response in chickens, including alterations in cytokine gene expression and IgA production (Jia et al., 2023). Warm and humid monsoon conditions likely favoured sporulation and transmission of coccidian oocysts. Shandey et al., (2024) recently confirmed the circulation of E. acervulina, E. tenella, E. maxima and E. brunetti in plain regions of Chhattisgarh through multiplex PCR, supporting the species-level findings of the present study. However, it must be acknowledged that Eimeria species in the present study were identified solely on the basis of sporulated oocyst morphometry. Closely related species (e.g. E. acervulina and E. mivati, or E. maxima and E. brunetti) show overlapping oocyst dimensions and sporulation times, which may lead to misclassification or underestimation of mixed-species infections (Khursheed et al., 2022; Shandey et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2025). Therefore, the species-level proportions should be interpreted with caution and molecular tools such as species-specific PCR, multiplex PCR and ITS-rDNA sequencing (Shandey et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2025) are recommended for future epidemiological studies on backyard poultry of Chhattisgarh.
 
Single and mixed infections
 
Among the 258 positive samples, 210 (81.39%) had single and 48 (18.61%) had mixed infections. The most common combinations involved Eimeria spp., Ascaridia galli and Heterakis gallinarum, consistent with reports of polyparasitism in scavenging poultry (Bharathi et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025; Attia et al., 2025). The predominance of nematodes is attributable to their direct life cycle and the persistence of infective eggs in contaminated soil (Shohana et al., 2023; Coroian et al., 2024). The occurrence of Raillietina spp. is associated with access to insects, beetles, ants and earthworms during scavenging (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016).
 
Age-, sex-, season- and management wise prevalence
 
Prevalence varied significantly by age (Table 4). Chicks (0-8 weeks) recorded the highest prevalence (75.00%; 95% CI: 66.56-81.89), followed by growers (69.29%) and adults (50.71%); the difference was statistically significant (χ2 = 18.80, df = 2, p<0.001). Greater susceptibility of younger birds, attributable to immature immune development, has been similarly reported by Khursheed et al. (2022) and Rahman et al. (2025).

Table 4: Age-wise prevalence (χ2 = 18.80, df = 2, p<0.001).


       
Sex-wise, females showed a slightly higher prevalence (66.00%, 132/200) than males (61.00%, 122/200), but the difference was non-significant (χ2 = 0.87, df = 1, p = 0.350), in line with recent Indian and Bangladeshi reports (Ara et al., 2021; Bharathi et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025).
       
Seasonal prevalence was highest during monsoon (72.50%), followed by summer (63.33%) and winter (55.00%); the difference was significant (χ2 = 9.27, df = 2, p = 0.010; Table 5). High humidity, ambient temperature and rainfall during the monsoon favour survival and development of infective stages (Khursheed et al., 2022; Badri et al., 2024; Saha et al., 2025).

Table 5: Season-wise prevalence (χ2 = 9.27, df = 2, p = 0.010).


       
Birds reared under traditional scavenging conditions without deworming had a significantly higher prevalence (72.14%, 202/280) than those maintained under semi-intensive systems with periodic deworming (46.67%, 56/120; χ2 = 22.71, df = 1, p < 0.001; Table 6), supporting the role of management and biosecurity as key determinants of parasitic burden (Singh et al., 2021; Tu et al., 2019; Cantin-Rosas et al., 2025; Rahman et al., 2025). The mean EPG ranged between 250 and 1,350, with the highest counts in young birds during the monsoon, consistent with recent reports (Coroian et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025).

Table 6: Management-wise prevalence (χ2 = 22.71, df = 1, p<0.001).


 
Economic implications of parasitic burden
 
Beyond their biological impact, GI parasitic infections impose considerable economic burdens on backyard poultry farmers, who are predominantly small, marginal and tribal households (Yadav et al., 2024). Diarrhoea, anaemia, reduced nutrient absorption, lower feed conversion efficiency and decreased egg production translate into measurable household-level economic losses (Shohana et al., 2023; Badri et al., 2024; Attia et al., 2025). Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp. is recognised globally as one of the costliest poultry diseases, with severe outbreaks causing chick mortality and significant outlays on anticoccidial medication; natural and alternative anticoccidial approaches such as the use of poultry-derived bile have therefore been explored (Murshed et al., 2023). In backyard systems, helminth infections additionally reduce live-weight gain and egg production (Shohana et al., 2023; Bharathi et al., 2024). The substantially higher prevalence in chicks (75.00%) and under scavenging conditions (72.14%) observed here is of particular economic concern, since these are the groups that drive most subclinical and clinical production losses. The mixed infections recorded may have additive pathological effects, further reducing growth and productivity (Attia et al., 2025). Collectively, these findings underline the economic rationale for low-cost interventions-strategic deworming, improved housing and sanitation, biosecurity-aware scavenging and farmer training - as cost-effective measures to safeguard the productivity and livelihood contribution of backyard poultry, particularly during the monsoon (Yadav et al., 2024; Midala et al., 2025).

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated a high overall prevalence (64.50%) of GI parasites in backyard poultry of Chhattisgarh, with Eimeria spp. predominating. Age (p<0.001), season (p = 0.010) and management practices (p<0.001) significantly influenced prevalence, with chicks under traditional scavenging conditions during the monsoon worst affected. The morphology-based identification of Eimeria species is a recognised limitation and future studies integrating molecular tools are recommended. Considering the substantial economic implications for rural livelihoods, the study highlights the need for strategic deworming, improved hygiene, biosecurity and farmer education, supported by regular surveillance and integrated parasite management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg and the State Veterinary Officer for providing laboratory facilities and technical support and to the participating backyard poultry farmers for their kind cooperation.
 
Ethical approval
 
The study involved only non-invasive collection of freshly voided faecal samples; no procedure causing pain or distress to the birds was performed. Sampling was carried out in accordance with institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals. Prior to sample collection, the study procedures were explained to each household owner in the local language and informed verbal consent was obtained from all participating farmers. Participation was voluntary and the confidentiality of the information provided was duly maintained.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.

REFERENCES


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    Full Research Article

    Assessment of Gastrointestinal Parasites in Backyard Poultry Rearing Systems of Chhattisgarh, India

    N
    Namita Shukla1,*
    K
    Kranti Sharma2
    A
    Ashutosh Tiwari3
    A
    Aakansha Tiwari4
    O
    Om Prakash5
    Y
    Y.K. Naik6
    1Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
    2Department of Panchagavya Research and Extension Centre, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
    3Department of Animal Biochemistry and Physiology, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
    4Department of Veterinary Microbiology, G.B.P.U.A.T., Pantnagar-263 145, Uttarakhand, India.
    5Department of Veterinary Parasitology, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.
    6Department of Dairy Chemistry, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism is a major constraint affecting backyard poultry production in rural and tribal farming systems of the tropics. The present study was undertaken to assess the prevalence, diversity and associated risk factors of GI parasites in backyard poultry systems of Chhattisgarh, India.

    Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out by the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg, in selected rural villages of Chhattisgarh during the research period January-June 2025. A total of 400 faecal samples were examined using direct smear, saturated salt flotation, sedimentation, McMaster egg-counting and oocyst sporulation techniques. Chi-square (χ2) analyses and Wilson 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed for inferential evaluation.

    Result: The overall prevalence was 64.50% (258/400; 95% CI: 59.69-69.03). Protozoa (34.25%) predominated, followed by nematodes (22.75%) and cestodes (7.50%). Eimeria spp. (28.50%), Ascaridia galli (18.25%) and Heterakis gallinarum (14.50%) were the most prevalent species. Prevalence differed significantly by age (χ2 = 18.80, df = 2, p<0.001), season (χ2 = 9.27, df = 2, p=0.010) and management system (χ2 = 22.71, df = 1, p<0.001), with chicks, monsoon-season birds and scavenging flocks worst affected. GI parasitism is highly prevalent and economically important in backyard poultry of Chhattisgarh; strategic deworming, improved hygiene, biosecurity-aware management and farmer awareness are recommended for sustained control.

    INTRODUCTION

    Backyard poultry farming is vital to the livelihood and nutritional security of rural and tribal households in India, providing income, employment, high-quality animal protein and socio-economic empowerment for small and marginal farmers (Permin and Hansen, 1998; Yadav et al., 2024). These low-input systems are characterised by scavenging feeding, poor housing, limited veterinary care and minimal biosecurity (Singh et al., 2021; Coroian et al., 2024; Cantin-Rosas et al., 2025).
           
    Among the diseases affecting backyard birds, gastrointestinal parasitic infections are one of the most important production-limiting factors, adversely affecting growth, feed conversion efficiency, egg production and overall health (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016; Shohana et al., 2023). The most commonly recorded GI parasites of poultry include protozoa such as Eimeria spp. and helminths including Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum, Capillaria spp. and Raillietina spp. (Singh et al., 2021; Tu et al., 2019; Bharathi et al., 2024; Shandey et al., 2024). These parasites cause enteritis, anaemia, diarrhoea, poor weight gain and reduced egg production, with severe coccidial outbreaks causing mortality, particularly in young birds (Badri et al., 2024; Attia et al., 2025). Free-range scavenging birds are particularly vulnerable due to constant exposure to infective stages and intermediate hosts (Montes-Vergara et al., 2021; Coroian et al., 2024).
           
    The prevalence of GI parasites is influenced by climate, age, season, management practices, sanitation and deworming status (Singh et al., 2021; Khursheed et al., 2022; Cantin-Rosas et al., 2025). Tropical climatic conditions favour development and survival of infective parasitic stages (Permin and Hansen, 1998; Badri et al., 2024). In Chhattisgarh, Eimeria species circulating in poultry have recently been characterised at the molecular level (Shandey et al., 2024), but information on the broader spectrum of helminth and protozoan parasites in backyard birds of the state remains limited. GI parasitism also imposes substantial economic costs on rural households through reduced productivity and recurrent treatment expenses (Yadav et al., 2024; Attia et al., 2025). The present study was therefore undertaken to determine the prevalence and risk factors of GI parasites in backyard poultry systems of Chhattisgarh.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Study area and institute
     
    The present study was conducted by the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya (DSVCKV), Anjora, Durg, Chhattisgarh, India, in selected rural villages of Chhattisgarh. The region experiences tropical climatic conditions with hot summers, moderate winters and a humid monsoon. Backyard poultry farming is commonly practised in the study area under traditional scavenging systems (Shandey et al., 2024).
     
    Study design and research period
     
    A cross-sectional study was conducted over a period of six months from January 2025 to June 2025 (research period: January-June 2025), covering the late winter, summer and onset of monsoon seasons. Birds of different age groups and both sexes were included in the investigation.
     
    Sample size and sampling strategy
     
    The sample size was calculated using the formula of Thrusfield (2018), assuming an expected prevalence of 50%, 95% confidence level and 5% absolute precision, which gave a minimum requirement of 384 birds; 400 birds were sampled to improve statistical precision. A multistage random sampling technique was adopted, with villages selected randomly and households rearing backyard poultry randomly chosen within each village. Information on management, feeding, deworming history and housing was recorded using a structured, pre-tested questionnaire (Singh et al., 2021).
     
    Collection and laboratory examination of samples
     
    Approximately 5-10 g of fresh faecal samples were collected from the cloaca or freshly voided droppings using sterile gloves, transported under refrigerated conditions (4oC) to the laboratory and examined within 24 hours (Soulsby, 1982; Shandey et al., 2024). Direct smear (with normal saline), saturated salt (NaCl) flotation for nematode and cestode eggs, sedimentation for trematode eggs and McMaster egg-counting for quantitative EPG estimation were performed following standard procedures (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016; Bharathi et al., 2024).
           
    Samples positive for Eimeria oocysts were sporulated in 2.5% potassium dichromate solution at 27-29oC and species identification was based on sporulated oocyst morphology (Soulsby, 1982; Shandey et al., 2024). It is acknowledged that species-level identification of Eimeria was based solely on morphometric characters and molecular confirmation was not undertaken; the implications of this limitation are addressed in the Discussion (Khursheed et al., 2022; Shandey et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2025).
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and analysed using SPSS version 26.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Prevalence was expressed as percentage with the 95% Wilson confidence interval (CI). The chi-square (χ2) test, with exact statistics, degrees of freedom (df) and p-values, was used to compare prevalence among age groups, sexes, seasons and management systems. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant (Thrusfield, 2018).
     
    Ethical Considerations and farmer consent
     
    The study involved only non-invasive collection of freshly voided faecal samples and no procedure causing pain or distress to the birds was performed; all sampling was conducted in accordance with institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals and standard parasitological practice (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016). The purpose, scope and procedure of the study were explained to each household owner in the local language and informed verbal consent was obtained prior to sampling. Sampling and questionnaire-based data collection were carried out only from households whose owners voluntarily agreed to participate and the confidentiality of the information provided by the farmers’ was duly maintained.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Overall prevalence
     
    Of 400 faecal samples examined, 258 were positive for one or more GI parasites, giving an overall prevalence of 64.50% (95% CI: 59.69-69.03; Table 1). This is consistent with the moderate-to-high prevalence reported in recent studies on backyard chickens in India and South Asia (Singh et al., 2021; Bharathi et al., 2024; Yadav et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025) and with comparable free-range systems described from China and Romania (Tu et al., 2019; Coroian et al., 2024).

    Table 1: Overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in backyard poultry (n = 400).


     
    Parasite groups and species-wise prevalence
     
    Protozoa (34.25%, 95% CI: 29.77-39.03) predominated, followed by nematodes (22.75%, 95% CI: 18.91-27.11), cestodes (7.50%, 95% CI: 5.30-10.50) and mixed infections (12.00%, 95% CI: 9.17-15.55); no trematodes were detected (Table 2). The species-wise distribution is presented in Table 3. A similar species composition has been reported in backyard chickens of India, China, Bangladesh and Africa (Tu et al., 2019; Khursheed et al., 2022; Bharathi et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025; Midala et al., 2025).         

    Table 2: Prevalence of different parasite groups (n = 400).



    Table 3: Species-wise prevalence of identified GI parasites (n = 400).


           
    The predominance of Eimeria spp. confirms that coccidiosis remains one of the most important parasitic diseases of poultry globally (Badri et al., 2024). E. tenella, in particular, is highly virulent and elicits a measurable splenic immune response in chickens, including alterations in cytokine gene expression and IgA production (Jia et al., 2023). Warm and humid monsoon conditions likely favoured sporulation and transmission of coccidian oocysts. Shandey et al., (2024) recently confirmed the circulation of E. acervulina, E. tenella, E. maxima and E. brunetti in plain regions of Chhattisgarh through multiplex PCR, supporting the species-level findings of the present study. However, it must be acknowledged that Eimeria species in the present study were identified solely on the basis of sporulated oocyst morphometry. Closely related species (e.g. E. acervulina and E. mivati, or E. maxima and E. brunetti) show overlapping oocyst dimensions and sporulation times, which may lead to misclassification or underestimation of mixed-species infections (Khursheed et al., 2022; Shandey et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2025). Therefore, the species-level proportions should be interpreted with caution and molecular tools such as species-specific PCR, multiplex PCR and ITS-rDNA sequencing (Shandey et al., 2024; Rahman et al., 2025) are recommended for future epidemiological studies on backyard poultry of Chhattisgarh.
     
    Single and mixed infections
     
    Among the 258 positive samples, 210 (81.39%) had single and 48 (18.61%) had mixed infections. The most common combinations involved Eimeria spp., Ascaridia galli and Heterakis gallinarum, consistent with reports of polyparasitism in scavenging poultry (Bharathi et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025; Attia et al., 2025). The predominance of nematodes is attributable to their direct life cycle and the persistence of infective eggs in contaminated soil (Shohana et al., 2023; Coroian et al., 2024). The occurrence of Raillietina spp. is associated with access to insects, beetles, ants and earthworms during scavenging (Soulsby, 1982; Taylor et al., 2016).
     
    Age-, sex-, season- and management wise prevalence
     
    Prevalence varied significantly by age (Table 4). Chicks (0-8 weeks) recorded the highest prevalence (75.00%; 95% CI: 66.56-81.89), followed by growers (69.29%) and adults (50.71%); the difference was statistically significant (χ2 = 18.80, df = 2, p<0.001). Greater susceptibility of younger birds, attributable to immature immune development, has been similarly reported by Khursheed et al. (2022) and Rahman et al. (2025).

    Table 4: Age-wise prevalence (χ2 = 18.80, df = 2, p<0.001).


           
    Sex-wise, females showed a slightly higher prevalence (66.00%, 132/200) than males (61.00%, 122/200), but the difference was non-significant (χ2 = 0.87, df = 1, p = 0.350), in line with recent Indian and Bangladeshi reports (Ara et al., 2021; Bharathi et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025).
           
    Seasonal prevalence was highest during monsoon (72.50%), followed by summer (63.33%) and winter (55.00%); the difference was significant (χ2 = 9.27, df = 2, p = 0.010; Table 5). High humidity, ambient temperature and rainfall during the monsoon favour survival and development of infective stages (Khursheed et al., 2022; Badri et al., 2024; Saha et al., 2025).

    Table 5: Season-wise prevalence (χ2 = 9.27, df = 2, p = 0.010).


           
    Birds reared under traditional scavenging conditions without deworming had a significantly higher prevalence (72.14%, 202/280) than those maintained under semi-intensive systems with periodic deworming (46.67%, 56/120; χ2 = 22.71, df = 1, p < 0.001; Table 6), supporting the role of management and biosecurity as key determinants of parasitic burden (Singh et al., 2021; Tu et al., 2019; Cantin-Rosas et al., 2025; Rahman et al., 2025). The mean EPG ranged between 250 and 1,350, with the highest counts in young birds during the monsoon, consistent with recent reports (Coroian et al., 2024; Kausar-A-Noor et al., 2025).

    Table 6: Management-wise prevalence (χ2 = 22.71, df = 1, p<0.001).


     
    Economic implications of parasitic burden
     
    Beyond their biological impact, GI parasitic infections impose considerable economic burdens on backyard poultry farmers, who are predominantly small, marginal and tribal households (Yadav et al., 2024). Diarrhoea, anaemia, reduced nutrient absorption, lower feed conversion efficiency and decreased egg production translate into measurable household-level economic losses (Shohana et al., 2023; Badri et al., 2024; Attia et al., 2025). Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp. is recognised globally as one of the costliest poultry diseases, with severe outbreaks causing chick mortality and significant outlays on anticoccidial medication; natural and alternative anticoccidial approaches such as the use of poultry-derived bile have therefore been explored (Murshed et al., 2023). In backyard systems, helminth infections additionally reduce live-weight gain and egg production (Shohana et al., 2023; Bharathi et al., 2024). The substantially higher prevalence in chicks (75.00%) and under scavenging conditions (72.14%) observed here is of particular economic concern, since these are the groups that drive most subclinical and clinical production losses. The mixed infections recorded may have additive pathological effects, further reducing growth and productivity (Attia et al., 2025). Collectively, these findings underline the economic rationale for low-cost interventions-strategic deworming, improved housing and sanitation, biosecurity-aware scavenging and farmer training - as cost-effective measures to safeguard the productivity and livelihood contribution of backyard poultry, particularly during the monsoon (Yadav et al., 2024; Midala et al., 2025).

    CONCLUSION

    The present study demonstrated a high overall prevalence (64.50%) of GI parasites in backyard poultry of Chhattisgarh, with Eimeria spp. predominating. Age (p<0.001), season (p = 0.010) and management practices (p<0.001) significantly influenced prevalence, with chicks under traditional scavenging conditions during the monsoon worst affected. The morphology-based identification of Eimeria species is a recognised limitation and future studies integrating molecular tools are recommended. Considering the substantial economic implications for rural livelihoods, the study highlights the need for strategic deworming, improved hygiene, biosecurity and farmer education, supported by regular surveillance and integrated parasite management.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors are thankful to DSVCKV, Anjora, Durg and the State Veterinary Officer for providing laboratory facilities and technical support and to the participating backyard poultry farmers for their kind cooperation.
     
    Ethical approval
     
    The study involved only non-invasive collection of freshly voided faecal samples; no procedure causing pain or distress to the birds was performed. Sampling was carried out in accordance with institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals. Prior to sample collection, the study procedures were explained to each household owner in the local language and informed verbal consent was obtained from all participating farmers. Participation was voluntary and the confidentiality of the information provided was duly maintained.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.

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