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Full Research Article

Impact of Supplementation of Dried Moringa oleifera Stem during Transition Phase on Successive Milk Yield, its Composition, Haemato-biochemical Parameter Along with Economics in Sahiwal Cows

S
Suryakant Sori1
N
Nishma Singh1,*
0009-0004-7291-9638
R
Rupal Pathak1
D
D. Bhonsle1
M
Mehtab Singh Parmar1
A
Ashutosh Dubey1
S
Sangeeta Singh1
R
Rishabh Sinha1
K
Kavita Khosla Chatley1
1College of Veterinary Science, Anjora, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: The study was conducted on 12 Sahiwal cows at the Bull Mother Experimental Farm, Durg (C.G.), to evaluate the effect of dried Moringa oleifera stem on milk production, milk composition, hematological and biochemical parameters, along with proximate analysis.

Methods: The 42-day study, which encompassed the full transition phase (21 days pre-calving and 21 days post-calving) involved 12 cows divided into control (T0) and treatment (T) groups (n=6). Cows in T0 received concentrate, green fodder and paddy straw, while in T, 20% of concentrate DM was replaced with dried M. oleifera stem.

Result: Proximate analysis of M. oleifera stem showed 20% moisture, 12.19% CP, 16.53% CF, 2.52% EE, 12.35% total ash and 56.41% NFE. Average milk yield was numerically higher in T1(5.77 kg/day) than T0 (5.04 kg/day), without affecting milk composition. Haematological and most biochemical parameters were similar between groups, except total serum protein, AST and ALT, which were significantly higher in T, while triglycerides were lower. Feed cost per kg milk decreased in T1(₹28.89) compared to T0(₹35.50), increasing profit (₹16.11 vs. ₹9.50/kg milk).

INTRODUCTION

Our country keeps topmost rank in world for producing milk as well as its consumption with 247.87 million tonnes in 2024-25, projected to exceed 300 million tonnes within five years (DAHD, 2025). Milk production rose from 186 million tonnes in 2018-19 to 198.4 million tonnes in 2021, supported by a livestock population of 302.37 million (Government of India, 2022). About 66% of milk comes from the unorganised sector of small and marginal farmers (DAHDF, 2019). Among 53 indigenous and one synthetic cattle breed, Sahiwal, Gir, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar are major milch breeds, with Sahiwal valued for high milk yield, climate adaptability and tick resistance (NBAGR, 2020; Prakash et al., 2005) demonstrating its superiority among indigenous cattle (Prasanna et al., 2023).
       
Livestock production is limited by fodder scarcity, with annual requirements far exceeding availability (Ranjhan, 1999). Transition cows experience metabolic stress and negative energy balance, affecting milk yield, health and profitability (Drackley, 1999; Hayirli et al., 2002).
       
The silvipastoral system offers a sustainable strategy to improve fodder supply. Moringa oleifera, a multipurpose tropical tree rich in protein, minerals and bioactive compounds, thrives under adverse conditions. Efficient vegetative propagation, specifically using optimized cutting lengths and compost-amended media, significantly improves Moringa seedling establishment and biomass yield for livestock feed (Santoso and Jayaputra, 2026). Its stem contains 12-13% crude protein and 78% NFE, providing a low-cost feed that supports milk yield, growth and animal health (Nouman et al., 2013; Anwar et al., 2007; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011). Furthermore, Moringa is rich in phytosterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol which act as precursors for hormones that can stimulate the proliferation of mammary gland ducts to enhance milk production (Athira et al., 2024).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was carried out at the Bull Mother Experimental Farm (BMEF),Veterinary College Durg (Chhattisgarh), located at 317 m above mean sea level in a dry tropical climate. The region experiences hot summers (up to 45°C), mild winters (around 10°C) and annual rainfall averaging 1071.16 mm. The total experimental trial lasted for 42 days (November 2020-March 2021). This encompassed the full transition phase, divided into a 21-day pre-calving period (which served as the dietary adaptation phase) and a 21-day post-calving period. Twelve Sahiwal cows (300-350 kg; 1st-5th parity) in the transition phase (21 days pre- and post-calving) were randomly divided into two equal groups (T0 and T1 ; n=6). Diets were formulated as per ICAR (2013) standards with a roughage-to-concentrate ratio of 60:40. The control group received a standard concentrate mixture, while in T1, dried Moringa stem replaced concentrate by 20%, rather than roughage, as its nutrient profile provides a direct, cost-effective alternative to expensive concentrate ingredients (Table 1). Leafless Moringa stems (completely stripped of all foliage) were collected, chopped, shade-dried, ground and incorporated into the concentrate. Feed samples were analyzed for proximate composition following AOAC (2000) methods.

Table 1: Feed consumption detail of Sahiwal cows.


 
Proximate composition
 
Feed samples including Moringa oleifera stems were analysed for crude protein (Micro-Kjeldahl method; N× 6.25), crude fibre, ether extract, total ash and nitrogen-free extract following AOAC (2000). Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) was calculated as:

NFE (%) = 100 - (CP% + CF% + EE% + TA%)
 
Milk composition
 
Milk samples were analysed using an Automatic Milk Analyser at the start of the experiment and at weekly intervals (1st, 7th, 14th and 21st day) for fat, SNF, protein and lactose percentage.
 
Haematological and biochemical parameters
 
Blood samples (5 ml) were collected at 21 days pre-partum, on the day of calving and 21 days post-partum. Haematological parameters including total erythrocyte count, haemoglobin, packed cell volume and total leucocyte count were estimated using standard manual methods (Jain, 1986). Plasma was separated for biochemical analysis of glucose, ALT, AST, triglycerides, total protein, albumin and globulin using a semi-auto analyser with commercial diagnostic kits.
 
Statistical analysis
 
Data were analysed using mean and standard error. Differences between groups were tested using an independent sample t-test as per Snedecor and Cochran (1994) using MS-Excel.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Proximate analysis showed that crude protein (CP) content of dried Moringa oleifera stem (12.19%) was comparable to concentrate mixture (16%) and green fodder (berseem, 14%) (Table 2), indicating its potential as a valuable, moderate-protein feed resource in cattle diets. Similar CP values were reported by Shih et al., (2011) and El-Esawy et al. (2018), although lower values were noted by Olaofe et al., (2013). The lower CP content compared to M. oleifera foliage reported by Sultana et al., (2015) may be due to the use of stems instead of leaves. Crude fibre (16.53%) and ether extract (2.52%) values were comparable with previous reports (El-Esawy et al., 2018; Navarro et al., 2019). Variations in composition may be attributed to plant maturity, harvest stage, season and agro-climatic conditions.

Table 2: Proximate composition of different feeds and fodder (% Dry matter basis).


 
Effect of feeding moringa stems on milk production and its composition
 
Milk yield of Sahiwal cows during the experimental period is presented in Table 3 . Milk yield ranged from 3.95 ± 0.39 to 5.20 ± 0.60 kg/day in the control group (T0) and from 4.98 ± 0.29 to 6.26 ± 0.43 kg/day in the moringa-supplemented group (T1). Although differences were statistically non-significant, the overall mean milk yield was higher in T1 (5.77 kg/day) than in T0(5.04 kg/day), indicating a 14.48% improvement. This increase is likely attributed to the high nutritional value and phytosterol content of Moringa oleifera (Athira et al., 2024), consistent with findings of Dong et al., (2019). Milk SNF percentage ranged from 7.59-12.55% in T0 and 7.59-17.78% in T1, with higher average SNF in the treatment group (Table 3). Milk fat percentage ranged from 3.08–5.68% in T0 and 3.25-3.90% in T1, showing numerically higher values in the moringa-fed group (Table 3). Milk protein content was higher in T1 (3.74%) than in T0 (3.20%), although differences were non-significant (Table 3). Lactose percentage also showed a numerical increase in the moringa group (Table 4). Overall, replacement of 20% concentrate dry matter with dried Moringa oleifera stem resulted in numerically higher milk yield and improved milk composition without adverse effects, indicating its potential as a cost-effective feed resource for lactating cows.

Table 3: Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stem on daily milk production (kg/d) of Sahiwal cows during the 21-day post-partum phase.



Table 4: Mean±S.E. of milk composition in sahiwal cows of different group.


 
Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stems on haematological parameters
 
Hematological parameters
 
Total erythrocyte count (TEC; ×106/mm³)
 
Mean TEC values before parturition were slightly lower in the treatment group (5.34 ± 0.30) compared to control (5.46 ± 0.38), while at parturition TEC was higher in moringa-supplemented cows (5.49 ± 0.29 vs. 5.20 ± 0.28), indicating a possible hematinic effect. Post-partum TEC values were comparable between groups (4.65 ± 0.27 and 4.72 ± 0.22). Differences were statistically non-significant and all values remained within normal physiological ranges (Smith, 2002), suggesting that Moringa oleifera stem supplementation maintained normal health status. Similarly, in other ruminants like goats, high Moringa inclusion safely improves production without altering hematological profiles (Sagaf et al., 2025). Similar trends were reported by Ali (2017) and Yusuf et al. (2018) (Table 5).

Table 5: Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stem on blood parameters of sahiwal cows.


 
PCV (Packed cell volume)
 
Mean PCV values before parturition were 30.45 ± 0.78% in the control group and 27.56 ± 0.81% in the treatment group, with significantly lower values in the latter, possibly due to dietary change (Table 4). At parturition, PCV values were 27.66 ± 1.06% (T0) and 29.78±1.13% (T1), while post-partum values were 26.91±1.19% and 25.56 ± 1.03%, respectively. All values remained within normal physiological range (24-46%) (Smith, 2002), indicating no adverse health effects. Similar findings were reported by Haridas (2018), while Meel et al., (2018) observed increased PCV following moringa supplementation. The improvement may be attributed to the hematopoietic properties of Moringa oleifera, rich in essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals, particularly iron (Foidl and Paull, 2008).
 
Total leucocyte count (/cmm)
 
Mean TLC values before parturition were 13,233±1506.35/cmm (control) and 10,666.67 ± 1566.87/cmm (treatment). At parturition, TLC values were 10,933.33±1295.29/cmm and 10,466.67 ± 1444.68/cmm, while post-partum values were 13,333.33 ± 807.74/cmm and 9,200±609/cmm, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant and all values remained within normal physiological ranges, indicating no adverse immune effects of Moringa oleifera stem supplementation. Similar observations were reported by Yusuf et al., (2018), though Meel et al., (2018) noted reduced TLC at higher moringa inclusion levels.
    
Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stems on Biochemical parameters
 
Serum glucose
 
Mean serum glucose levels before parturition were 73.5 ± 2.55 mg/dl (control) and 58.0±2.38 mg/dl (moringa group), showing a significant effect of Moringa oleifera stem on blood glucose stabilization (Table 5). At parturition, glucose levels were 62.7 ± 8.04 mg/dl and 55.5±6.74 mg/dl, while post-partum values were 69.5 ± 3.81 mg/dl and 60.16±5.74 mg/dl, respectively. All values remained within normal physiological range (45-75 mg/dl) (Kaneko et al., 2008). Lower glucose levels in the moringa-fed group may be attributed to bioactive compounds such as chlorogenic acid and flavonoids with hypoglycaemic effects (Farooq et al., 2007). Similar trends were reported by Zeng et al., (2017) and Meel et al., (2018).
 
Aspartate amino transferase (AST)
 
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is a key indicator of liver function. Mean AST values before parturition were 72.86 ± 3.64 U/L (control) and 66.70 ± 4.70 U/L (moringa group). At parturition, values were 82.69 ± 9.67 U/L and 78.31 ± 6.94 U/L, while post-partum values were 89.99 ± 3.81 U/L and 97.67 ± 8.22 U/L, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant and all values remained within normal physiological range (Kaneko et al., 2008), indicating normal liver function. Similar findings were reported by Khalel et al., (2014) and El-Esawy et al. (2018), although Mahmoud (2013) observed a significant effect of moringa supplementation. The results suggest no adverse hepatic effect and possible hepatoprotective properties of Moringa oleifera.
 
Alanine transaminase (ALT)
 
Table 5 showed the ALT value before parturition in subsequent groups was 37.75±5.48U/L and 31.32±5.48U/L respectively, at the day of parturition mean ALT it was 33.91±2.84U/L and 34.85±5.82U/L respectively and after parturition mean ALT was 38.66±10.92U/L and43.61±7.45U/L in untreated and supplemented group respectively. However, El-Esawy et al. (2018)  and Redekar et al., (2019) studied no effect of moringa supplementation on ALT.
 
Total protein
 
Mean total serum protein levels before parturition were 5.89 ± 0.34 g/dl (control) and 5.79 ± 0.27 g/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 7.35 ± 0.36 g/dl and 4.92 ± 0.34 g/dl, while post-partum levels were 5.46 ± 0.18 g/dl and 5.74 ± 0.18 g/dl, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant. The results align with previous studies reporting variable effects of Moringa oleifera supplementation on serum protein levels (Khalel et al., 2014; Damor et al., 2017b; Mahmoud, 2013; Zeng et al., 2017).
 
Albumin
 
Mean serum albumin levels before parturition were 3.48±0.21 g/dl (control) and 3.25 ± 0.19 g/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 2.38 ± 0.30 g/dl and 3.25 ± 0.19 g/dl, while post-partum levels were 3.60 ± 0.09 g/dl and 3.48 ± 0.09 g/dl, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant. Higher albumin levels reported in moringa-fed animals by El-Esawy et al. (2018) and Ndlovu et al., (2007) suggest improved protein utilization, though no adverse effects were observed in the present study.
 
Globulin
 
Mean serum globulin values before parturition were 2.41 ± 0.16 g/dl (control) and 2.53 ± 0.19 g/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 4.97 ± 0.54 g/dl and 1.70 ± 0.24 g/dl and post-partum values were 1.86 ± 0.16 g/dl and 2.25 ± 0.20 g/dl, respectively (Table 5). Normal globulin levels indicate a healthy immune status and moringa supplementation appeared to support immunity. Similar trends were reported by El-Esawy et al. (2018), while Mahmoud (2013) and Meel et al., (2018) observed non-significant or reduced globulin values with moringa feeding.
 
Triglyceride
 
Mean serum triglyceride levels before parturition were 59.10 ± 3.88 mg/dl (control) and 85.30 ± 3.61 mg/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 63.56 ± 3.81 mg/dl and 54.48 ± 9.60 mg/dl and post-partum levels were 83.65 ± 5.59 mg/dl and 70.23 ± 12.80 mg/dl, respectively (Table 5). Although differences were non-significant, moringa supplementation tended to lower triglyceride levels, possibly due to bioactive phenolic compounds (saponins, flavonoids, tannins) that reduce lipid absorption (Adriani et al., 2014). Values remained within normal physiological range (Kaneko et al., 2008), consistent with Kholif et al., (2016) and Zeng et al., (2017).
 
Economics of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stem
 
Replacement of 20% concentrate with dried Moringa oleifera stem reduced concentrate intake (4.40 vs. 3.52 kg/day) and incorporated 0.88 kg/day of moringa in T1, while green berseem and paddy straw inta ke remained similar between groups (Table 6). The cost of dried moringa stem was estimated at ₹3/kg. Total feeding cost decreased from ₹180.32/cow/day (T0) to ₹154.26/cow/day (T1), reducing milk production cost from ₹35.50/kg to ₹28.89/kg. Net profit per kg milk increased from ₹9.50 (control) to ₹16.11 (moringa group), indicating economic benefits of moringa supplementation, in agreement with Khalel et al., (2014).

Table 6: Economic of feeding.

CONCLUSION

Supplementation of 20% dried Moringa oleifera stem as a partial replacement for concentrate improved milk production in Sahiwal cows without adversely affecting hematological or biochemical parameters. Proximate analysis confirmed its moderate protein content, making it a valuable feed ingredient Moringa supplementation also reduced feed cost per kg milk by 18.62% (from ₹35.50 to ₹28.89), indicating strong economic benefits. Overall, dried moringa stem can partially replace up to 20% of the concentrate and support productivity in milch animals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

 The authors acknowledge the support and collaboration of the hosting organization, which was essential for completing the study.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views expressed are solely those of the authors and do not represent their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy of the content and disclaim any liability for direct or indirect losses arising from its use.
 
Informed Consent 
 
All animal procedures were approved by the University Animal Care Committee (Ethical no. 445/GO/ReBi/o1/CPCSEA).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

There is no conflicts of interest between author’s regarding funding or sponsorship which influenced the study design, data collection, analysis, or manuscript preparation.

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    Full Research Article

    Impact of Supplementation of Dried Moringa oleifera Stem during Transition Phase on Successive Milk Yield, its Composition, Haemato-biochemical Parameter Along with Economics in Sahiwal Cows

    S
    Suryakant Sori1
    N
    Nishma Singh1,*
    0009-0004-7291-9638
    R
    Rupal Pathak1
    D
    D. Bhonsle1
    M
    Mehtab Singh Parmar1
    A
    Ashutosh Dubey1
    S
    Sangeeta Singh1
    R
    Rishabh Sinha1
    K
    Kavita Khosla Chatley1
    1College of Veterinary Science, Anjora, Dau Shri Vasudev Chandrakar Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya, Durg-491 001, Chhattisgarh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: The study was conducted on 12 Sahiwal cows at the Bull Mother Experimental Farm, Durg (C.G.), to evaluate the effect of dried Moringa oleifera stem on milk production, milk composition, hematological and biochemical parameters, along with proximate analysis.

    Methods: The 42-day study, which encompassed the full transition phase (21 days pre-calving and 21 days post-calving) involved 12 cows divided into control (T0) and treatment (T) groups (n=6). Cows in T0 received concentrate, green fodder and paddy straw, while in T, 20% of concentrate DM was replaced with dried M. oleifera stem.

    Result: Proximate analysis of M. oleifera stem showed 20% moisture, 12.19% CP, 16.53% CF, 2.52% EE, 12.35% total ash and 56.41% NFE. Average milk yield was numerically higher in T1(5.77 kg/day) than T0 (5.04 kg/day), without affecting milk composition. Haematological and most biochemical parameters were similar between groups, except total serum protein, AST and ALT, which were significantly higher in T, while triglycerides were lower. Feed cost per kg milk decreased in T1(₹28.89) compared to T0(₹35.50), increasing profit (₹16.11 vs. ₹9.50/kg milk).

    INTRODUCTION

    Our country keeps topmost rank in world for producing milk as well as its consumption with 247.87 million tonnes in 2024-25, projected to exceed 300 million tonnes within five years (DAHD, 2025). Milk production rose from 186 million tonnes in 2018-19 to 198.4 million tonnes in 2021, supported by a livestock population of 302.37 million (Government of India, 2022). About 66% of milk comes from the unorganised sector of small and marginal farmers (DAHDF, 2019). Among 53 indigenous and one synthetic cattle breed, Sahiwal, Gir, Red Sindhi and Tharparkar are major milch breeds, with Sahiwal valued for high milk yield, climate adaptability and tick resistance (NBAGR, 2020; Prakash et al., 2005) demonstrating its superiority among indigenous cattle (Prasanna et al., 2023).
           
    Livestock production is limited by fodder scarcity, with annual requirements far exceeding availability (Ranjhan, 1999). Transition cows experience metabolic stress and negative energy balance, affecting milk yield, health and profitability (Drackley, 1999; Hayirli et al., 2002).
           
    The silvipastoral system offers a sustainable strategy to improve fodder supply. Moringa oleifera, a multipurpose tropical tree rich in protein, minerals and bioactive compounds, thrives under adverse conditions. Efficient vegetative propagation, specifically using optimized cutting lengths and compost-amended media, significantly improves Moringa seedling establishment and biomass yield for livestock feed (Santoso and Jayaputra, 2026). Its stem contains 12-13% crude protein and 78% NFE, providing a low-cost feed that supports milk yield, growth and animal health (Nouman et al., 2013; Anwar et al., 2007; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011). Furthermore, Moringa is rich in phytosterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol which act as precursors for hormones that can stimulate the proliferation of mammary gland ducts to enhance milk production (Athira et al., 2024).

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The experiment was carried out at the Bull Mother Experimental Farm (BMEF),Veterinary College Durg (Chhattisgarh), located at 317 m above mean sea level in a dry tropical climate. The region experiences hot summers (up to 45°C), mild winters (around 10°C) and annual rainfall averaging 1071.16 mm. The total experimental trial lasted for 42 days (November 2020-March 2021). This encompassed the full transition phase, divided into a 21-day pre-calving period (which served as the dietary adaptation phase) and a 21-day post-calving period. Twelve Sahiwal cows (300-350 kg; 1st-5th parity) in the transition phase (21 days pre- and post-calving) were randomly divided into two equal groups (T0 and T1 ; n=6). Diets were formulated as per ICAR (2013) standards with a roughage-to-concentrate ratio of 60:40. The control group received a standard concentrate mixture, while in T1, dried Moringa stem replaced concentrate by 20%, rather than roughage, as its nutrient profile provides a direct, cost-effective alternative to expensive concentrate ingredients (Table 1). Leafless Moringa stems (completely stripped of all foliage) were collected, chopped, shade-dried, ground and incorporated into the concentrate. Feed samples were analyzed for proximate composition following AOAC (2000) methods.

    Table 1: Feed consumption detail of Sahiwal cows.


     
    Proximate composition
     
    Feed samples including Moringa oleifera stems were analysed for crude protein (Micro-Kjeldahl method; N× 6.25), crude fibre, ether extract, total ash and nitrogen-free extract following AOAC (2000). Nitrogen-free extract (NFE) was calculated as:

    NFE (%) = 100 - (CP% + CF% + EE% + TA%)
     
    Milk composition
     
    Milk samples were analysed using an Automatic Milk Analyser at the start of the experiment and at weekly intervals (1st, 7th, 14th and 21st day) for fat, SNF, protein and lactose percentage.
     
    Haematological and biochemical parameters
     
    Blood samples (5 ml) were collected at 21 days pre-partum, on the day of calving and 21 days post-partum. Haematological parameters including total erythrocyte count, haemoglobin, packed cell volume and total leucocyte count were estimated using standard manual methods (Jain, 1986). Plasma was separated for biochemical analysis of glucose, ALT, AST, triglycerides, total protein, albumin and globulin using a semi-auto analyser with commercial diagnostic kits.
     
    Statistical analysis
     
    Data were analysed using mean and standard error. Differences between groups were tested using an independent sample t-test as per Snedecor and Cochran (1994) using MS-Excel.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Proximate analysis showed that crude protein (CP) content of dried Moringa oleifera stem (12.19%) was comparable to concentrate mixture (16%) and green fodder (berseem, 14%) (Table 2), indicating its potential as a valuable, moderate-protein feed resource in cattle diets. Similar CP values were reported by Shih et al., (2011) and El-Esawy et al. (2018), although lower values were noted by Olaofe et al., (2013). The lower CP content compared to M. oleifera foliage reported by Sultana et al., (2015) may be due to the use of stems instead of leaves. Crude fibre (16.53%) and ether extract (2.52%) values were comparable with previous reports (El-Esawy et al., 2018; Navarro et al., 2019). Variations in composition may be attributed to plant maturity, harvest stage, season and agro-climatic conditions.

    Table 2: Proximate composition of different feeds and fodder (% Dry matter basis).


     
    Effect of feeding moringa stems on milk production and its composition
     
    Milk yield of Sahiwal cows during the experimental period is presented in Table 3 . Milk yield ranged from 3.95 ± 0.39 to 5.20 ± 0.60 kg/day in the control group (T0) and from 4.98 ± 0.29 to 6.26 ± 0.43 kg/day in the moringa-supplemented group (T1). Although differences were statistically non-significant, the overall mean milk yield was higher in T1 (5.77 kg/day) than in T0(5.04 kg/day), indicating a 14.48% improvement. This increase is likely attributed to the high nutritional value and phytosterol content of Moringa oleifera (Athira et al., 2024), consistent with findings of Dong et al., (2019). Milk SNF percentage ranged from 7.59-12.55% in T0 and 7.59-17.78% in T1, with higher average SNF in the treatment group (Table 3). Milk fat percentage ranged from 3.08–5.68% in T0 and 3.25-3.90% in T1, showing numerically higher values in the moringa-fed group (Table 3). Milk protein content was higher in T1 (3.74%) than in T0 (3.20%), although differences were non-significant (Table 3). Lactose percentage also showed a numerical increase in the moringa group (Table 4). Overall, replacement of 20% concentrate dry matter with dried Moringa oleifera stem resulted in numerically higher milk yield and improved milk composition without adverse effects, indicating its potential as a cost-effective feed resource for lactating cows.

    Table 3: Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stem on daily milk production (kg/d) of Sahiwal cows during the 21-day post-partum phase.



    Table 4: Mean±S.E. of milk composition in sahiwal cows of different group.


     
    Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stems on haematological parameters
     
    Hematological parameters
     
    Total erythrocyte count (TEC; ×106/mm³)
     
    Mean TEC values before parturition were slightly lower in the treatment group (5.34 ± 0.30) compared to control (5.46 ± 0.38), while at parturition TEC was higher in moringa-supplemented cows (5.49 ± 0.29 vs. 5.20 ± 0.28), indicating a possible hematinic effect. Post-partum TEC values were comparable between groups (4.65 ± 0.27 and 4.72 ± 0.22). Differences were statistically non-significant and all values remained within normal physiological ranges (Smith, 2002), suggesting that Moringa oleifera stem supplementation maintained normal health status. Similarly, in other ruminants like goats, high Moringa inclusion safely improves production without altering hematological profiles (Sagaf et al., 2025). Similar trends were reported by Ali (2017) and Yusuf et al. (2018) (Table 5).

    Table 5: Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stem on blood parameters of sahiwal cows.


     
    PCV (Packed cell volume)
     
    Mean PCV values before parturition were 30.45 ± 0.78% in the control group and 27.56 ± 0.81% in the treatment group, with significantly lower values in the latter, possibly due to dietary change (Table 4). At parturition, PCV values were 27.66 ± 1.06% (T0) and 29.78±1.13% (T1), while post-partum values were 26.91±1.19% and 25.56 ± 1.03%, respectively. All values remained within normal physiological range (24-46%) (Smith, 2002), indicating no adverse health effects. Similar findings were reported by Haridas (2018), while Meel et al., (2018) observed increased PCV following moringa supplementation. The improvement may be attributed to the hematopoietic properties of Moringa oleifera, rich in essential amino acids, vitamins and minerals, particularly iron (Foidl and Paull, 2008).
     
    Total leucocyte count (/cmm)
     
    Mean TLC values before parturition were 13,233±1506.35/cmm (control) and 10,666.67 ± 1566.87/cmm (treatment). At parturition, TLC values were 10,933.33±1295.29/cmm and 10,466.67 ± 1444.68/cmm, while post-partum values were 13,333.33 ± 807.74/cmm and 9,200±609/cmm, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant and all values remained within normal physiological ranges, indicating no adverse immune effects of Moringa oleifera stem supplementation. Similar observations were reported by Yusuf et al., (2018), though Meel et al., (2018) noted reduced TLC at higher moringa inclusion levels.
        
    Effect of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stems on Biochemical parameters
     
    Serum glucose
     
    Mean serum glucose levels before parturition were 73.5 ± 2.55 mg/dl (control) and 58.0±2.38 mg/dl (moringa group), showing a significant effect of Moringa oleifera stem on blood glucose stabilization (Table 5). At parturition, glucose levels were 62.7 ± 8.04 mg/dl and 55.5±6.74 mg/dl, while post-partum values were 69.5 ± 3.81 mg/dl and 60.16±5.74 mg/dl, respectively. All values remained within normal physiological range (45-75 mg/dl) (Kaneko et al., 2008). Lower glucose levels in the moringa-fed group may be attributed to bioactive compounds such as chlorogenic acid and flavonoids with hypoglycaemic effects (Farooq et al., 2007). Similar trends were reported by Zeng et al., (2017) and Meel et al., (2018).
     
    Aspartate amino transferase (AST)
     
    Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is a key indicator of liver function. Mean AST values before parturition were 72.86 ± 3.64 U/L (control) and 66.70 ± 4.70 U/L (moringa group). At parturition, values were 82.69 ± 9.67 U/L and 78.31 ± 6.94 U/L, while post-partum values were 89.99 ± 3.81 U/L and 97.67 ± 8.22 U/L, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant and all values remained within normal physiological range (Kaneko et al., 2008), indicating normal liver function. Similar findings were reported by Khalel et al., (2014) and El-Esawy et al. (2018), although Mahmoud (2013) observed a significant effect of moringa supplementation. The results suggest no adverse hepatic effect and possible hepatoprotective properties of Moringa oleifera.
     
    Alanine transaminase (ALT)
     
    Table 5 showed the ALT value before parturition in subsequent groups was 37.75±5.48U/L and 31.32±5.48U/L respectively, at the day of parturition mean ALT it was 33.91±2.84U/L and 34.85±5.82U/L respectively and after parturition mean ALT was 38.66±10.92U/L and43.61±7.45U/L in untreated and supplemented group respectively. However, El-Esawy et al. (2018)  and Redekar et al., (2019) studied no effect of moringa supplementation on ALT.
     
    Total protein
     
    Mean total serum protein levels before parturition were 5.89 ± 0.34 g/dl (control) and 5.79 ± 0.27 g/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 7.35 ± 0.36 g/dl and 4.92 ± 0.34 g/dl, while post-partum levels were 5.46 ± 0.18 g/dl and 5.74 ± 0.18 g/dl, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant. The results align with previous studies reporting variable effects of Moringa oleifera supplementation on serum protein levels (Khalel et al., 2014; Damor et al., 2017b; Mahmoud, 2013; Zeng et al., 2017).
     
    Albumin
     
    Mean serum albumin levels before parturition were 3.48±0.21 g/dl (control) and 3.25 ± 0.19 g/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 2.38 ± 0.30 g/dl and 3.25 ± 0.19 g/dl, while post-partum levels were 3.60 ± 0.09 g/dl and 3.48 ± 0.09 g/dl, respectively (Table 5). Differences between groups were non-significant. Higher albumin levels reported in moringa-fed animals by El-Esawy et al. (2018) and Ndlovu et al., (2007) suggest improved protein utilization, though no adverse effects were observed in the present study.
     
    Globulin
     
    Mean serum globulin values before parturition were 2.41 ± 0.16 g/dl (control) and 2.53 ± 0.19 g/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 4.97 ± 0.54 g/dl and 1.70 ± 0.24 g/dl and post-partum values were 1.86 ± 0.16 g/dl and 2.25 ± 0.20 g/dl, respectively (Table 5). Normal globulin levels indicate a healthy immune status and moringa supplementation appeared to support immunity. Similar trends were reported by El-Esawy et al. (2018), while Mahmoud (2013) and Meel et al., (2018) observed non-significant or reduced globulin values with moringa feeding.
     
    Triglyceride
     
    Mean serum triglyceride levels before parturition were 59.10 ± 3.88 mg/dl (control) and 85.30 ± 3.61 mg/dl (moringa group). At parturition, values were 63.56 ± 3.81 mg/dl and 54.48 ± 9.60 mg/dl and post-partum levels were 83.65 ± 5.59 mg/dl and 70.23 ± 12.80 mg/dl, respectively (Table 5). Although differences were non-significant, moringa supplementation tended to lower triglyceride levels, possibly due to bioactive phenolic compounds (saponins, flavonoids, tannins) that reduce lipid absorption (Adriani et al., 2014). Values remained within normal physiological range (Kaneko et al., 2008), consistent with Kholif et al., (2016) and Zeng et al., (2017).
     
    Economics of feeding dried Moringa oleifera stem
     
    Replacement of 20% concentrate with dried Moringa oleifera stem reduced concentrate intake (4.40 vs. 3.52 kg/day) and incorporated 0.88 kg/day of moringa in T1, while green berseem and paddy straw inta ke remained similar between groups (Table 6). The cost of dried moringa stem was estimated at ₹3/kg. Total feeding cost decreased from ₹180.32/cow/day (T0) to ₹154.26/cow/day (T1), reducing milk production cost from ₹35.50/kg to ₹28.89/kg. Net profit per kg milk increased from ₹9.50 (control) to ₹16.11 (moringa group), indicating economic benefits of moringa supplementation, in agreement with Khalel et al., (2014).

    Table 6: Economic of feeding.

    CONCLUSION

    Supplementation of 20% dried Moringa oleifera stem as a partial replacement for concentrate improved milk production in Sahiwal cows without adversely affecting hematological or biochemical parameters. Proximate analysis confirmed its moderate protein content, making it a valuable feed ingredient Moringa supplementation also reduced feed cost per kg milk by 18.62% (from ₹35.50 to ₹28.89), indicating strong economic benefits. Overall, dried moringa stem can partially replace up to 20% of the concentrate and support productivity in milch animals.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

     The authors acknowledge the support and collaboration of the hosting organization, which was essential for completing the study.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views expressed are solely those of the authors and do not represent their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy of the content and disclaim any liability for direct or indirect losses arising from its use.
     
    Informed Consent 
     
    All animal procedures were approved by the University Animal Care Committee (Ethical no. 445/GO/ReBi/o1/CPCSEA).

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    There is no conflicts of interest between author’s regarding funding or sponsorship which influenced the study design, data collection, analysis, or manuscript preparation.

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