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Full Research Article

A Comprehensive Study on the Prevalence, Classification and Clinical Trends of Anaemia in Dogs

A
Aditya Pratap1,*
A
Amita Tiwari1
D
Devendra Kumar Gupta1
D
Dushyant Kumar1
S
Salil Kumar Pathak1
V
Varsha Mishra1
S
Shashank Vishvakarma2
J
Jyoti3
1Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
2Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
3Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Anaemia is a common and clinically significant condition in dogs, often occurring as a secondary manifestation of underlying systemic, infectious, or metabolic disorders. It adversely affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and overall health status. The present study was undertaken to determine the prevalence, classification and associated clinical conditions of anaemia in dogs presented to the Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur (M.P.).

Methods: The study was conducted over a period of twelve months, from May 2024 to April 2025. A total of 10,785 dogs were screened based on clinical signs of anaemia such as pale mucous membranes, lethargy and weakness. Out of these, 1,933 were suspected and 801 were confirmed anaemic based on clinical, haematological and biochemical evaluations. Anaemia was classified according to its severity, erythrocytic indices (MCV and MCHC), regenerative response (reticulocyte count) and etiology. Detailed investigations including liver and kidney function tests, rapid antigen tests, ultrasonography and fecal examinations were performed to identify associated disorders.

Result: The overall prevalence of anaemia in dogs was 41.44%. Age-wise, the highest prevalence was recorded in puppies (51.06%) and on gender-wise, in males (45.22%). Labradors (54.99%) were the most affected breed. Clinically, pale mucous membranes (53.56%), tachycardia (66.67%), tachypnoea (65.42%) and anorexia (51.69%) were the most common findings. Based on severity, mild anaemia (54.93%) was most prevalent. Morphologically, microcytic hypochromic anaemia (39.20%) predominated, followed by normocytic normochromic anaemia (21.72%). Regenerative anaemia accounted for 80.15% of cases and non-regenerative for 19.85%, with moderate regeneration observed in 48.19% of cases. Among etiological categories, renal disorders (15.48%) and hepatic disorders (14.73%) were the leading causes, followed by haemoparasitic infections (10.11%), neoplasia (8.36%) and viral infections (8.11%).

INTRODUCTION

Canine (Canis familaris), “oldest companion animal”, plays most important role in human lives as a best companion due to their fundamental behavioral characters like obedience, loyalty, adoptability, sensitive olfaction and investigating behavior. Canine are susceptible to a variety of illnesses, among which anaemia ranks high as a subsequent complication of several ailments.
       
Anaemia in dogs is a significant concern in veterinary medicine, reflecting the complex connection between canine physiology and numerous health problems. It affects dogs across all breeds and age groups, with serious implications for their overall health. Anaemia is defined as a condition in which the body has a decreased number of circulating erythrocytes (RBCs) or decrease in hemoglobin concentration per unit volume of blood. Anaemia can also be defined as reduction in number of the erythrocytes in an animal for that particular age, species, breed and geographic location (Vegad and Swamy, 2010). It can either be due to decreased production of erythrocytes or hemoglobin or increased destruction of red blood cells (RBCs). It is therefore associated with reduction in red cell count or volume of red cell. Physiologically, it is defined as a condition in which the circulated blood doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen to the tissue effectively. It is characterized by reduction in haemoglobin (Hb), haematocrit (Hct) or total erythrocyte count (TEC) per unit volume of blood in a normally hydrated animal (Aird, 2000). It can develop from loss, destruction or lack of production of RBC. The most important abnormality in anaemia is the hypoxemia and subsequent tissue hypoxia that results from the reduced hemoglobin concentration and oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. Several systemic and infectious diseases can alter hematological parameters in dogs, leading to anemia and related clinical manifestations (Neeladevi et al., 2024; Patowary et al., 2022).
       
Anemic patients typically display clinical signs such as pallor, lethargy, malaise, exercise intolerance, tachycardia as well as strong pulse intensity (Naigamwalla et al., 2012). It is the reflection of an underlying disease process mainly secondary to hemorrhage, hemolysis, trauma, coagulation disorders, gastrointestinal parasitism, hemoprotozoan infections, renal failure and nutritional disorders, etc. rather than being a primary disease.
       
Anaemia can be classified in different ways on the basis of etiology, erythrocytic indices and cell morphology. Classification of anaemia as regenerative or non-regenerative is helpful in determination of prognosis and monitoring of treatment response. The erythrocyte indices viz. mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) are used to characterize and classify anaemia (Susan and Justin, 1998).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Location and place of work
 
The study was conducted in the Department of Veterinary Medicine, veterinary clinical complex (VCC), College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur (M.P.).
 
Duration of work
 
The study was conducted for the period of 12 months i.e. from May 2024 to April 2025.
 
Statutory permission to undertake the research work
 
The present study was undertaken after the approval from the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC). The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the IAEC of Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India (CPCSEA Registration No. 2071/GO/Re/S/19/CPCSEA). Adequate measures were taken to minimize animal discomfort and ensure humane handling during sample collection and clinical examination.
 
Animals
 
For this study, a total of 10,785 dogs presented at Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, NDVSU, Jabalpur (M.P.) for a period of 12 months i.e. from May 2024 to April 2025, were screened on the basis of history and presence of clinical signs indicative of anaemia i.e. pale mucous membrane, lethargy, decreased appetite, depression, colour of urine, haemoglobinuria, color of feces, melena, high body temperature, enlarged lymph nodes, vomiting, weight loss, oedema etc.
       
Out of 10.785 dogs, a total of 1.933 dogs showed clinical signs associated with anaemia. Out of which 801 dogs were found anaemic basing on clinical, haematological and biochemical evaluations.
 
Collection of samples
 
Blood sample
 
Approximately 3 ml of blood were collected aseptically from saphenous or cephalic vein from each dog suspected for anaemia.
 
Faecal sample
 
Faecal samples were collected directly from rectum of dogs using gloved finger or with sterile swabs and were send to the laboratory for further examination.
 
Parameters of the study
 
History
 
Complete history of age, breed, sex etc. was recorded in all the suspected cases of anaemia.
 
Clinical examination
 
All the dogs were examined for the presence of clinical symptoms viz pale mucus membrane, enlarged lymph nodes, weakness and weight loss if any.
 
Classification
 
The data collected from anaemic dog was analyzed according to the haematological parameters and classified on the basis of severity, degree of regeneration, erythrocytic indices and various etiologies.
 
Severity of anaemia
 
All the cases of anaemia were classified as mild, moderate, severe and very severe as described by Tvedten (2005).
 
Differentiation of regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia
 
The regenerative anaemia was identified on the basis of reticulocyte (per cent) and/or number of absolute reticulocyte (/µL) count.
 
Degree of regeneration
 
The absolute reticulocytes (/μL) were evaluated for degree of regenerative anaemia. Degree of regeneration were estimated on the basis of number of absolute reticulocytes count (/μL) (Cowgill et al., 2003).
 
Morphological classification
 
Morphological classification of anaemia was done on the basis of erythrocyte indices.
 
Etiological classification
 
Anaemic dogs were subjected to detailed clinical, hematological and biochemical evaluations to determine the underlying etiology of anaemia or the associated clinical conditions. Classification was based on haematological findings in conjunction with specific diagnostic tests targeting various organ systems and potential causative agents.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Prevalence of anaemia in dogs
 
In the present study to determine the prevalence of anaemia in dogs at Jabalpur, an epidemiological study was conducted for a period of twelve months i.e., from May, 2024 to April, 2025. A total of 10.785 dogs presented to Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, NDVSU, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, were screened for the presence of clinical signs indicative of anaemia, out of which 1.933 dogs showed clinical signs associated with anaemia. Among 1,933 suspected dogs, 801 were found positive for anaemia basing on clinical signs, haematological and biochemical evaluations. The study showed an overall prevalence of 41.44 per cent of anaemia in dogs in Jabalpur (Table 1).

Table 1: Overall prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


       
The findings of the current study are in close agreement with earlier reports. Bhat et al., (2016) documented a prevalence of 44.83% in dogs in Punjab, which is comparable to the 41.44% recorded in the present study. However, variations in prevalence have been reported in different geographic regions. For instance, Meshram  et al. (2019) reported a higher prevalence of 58.33% in Mumbai and Singh  et al. (2012) reported 47.44% in the Jammu region, whereas Panchal  et al. (2022) reported a markedly lower prevalence of 7.86% in Gujarat. The variations in prevalence of anaemia among dogs may be attributed to several factors which include demographic differences such as age, breed, sex and overall health status of the population. It is important to recognize that anaemia itself is not a disease but a clinical indicator of an underlying pathological condition. Therefore, variations in prevalence likely reflect differences in the distribution of causative factors and husbandry practices across different canine populations and geographical regions.
 
Age wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs
 
The dogs of varying ages included in the study were classified into six categories i.e. puppy, juvenile, young adults, mature adults, senior dogs and geriatric. The age wise prevalence of anaemia was found significantly higher (51.06%) in puppy (Table 2).

Table 2: Age wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


       
The result of present study correlates well with the findings of Singh  et al. (2012), who reported highest prevalence of anaemia in dogs below 6 months of age (44.61%) and lowest in 3-6 years of age group (7.69%). Similarly, Mondal  et al. (2019) found highest prevalence in age group <1 year (58.26%). In addition, Meshram  et al. (2019) reported highest incidence in young age group (38.46%) whereas Shah  et al. (2020) under 1 year of age. On the contrary, Tandel  et al. (2016) reported highest incidence of anaemia in the adult dogs (58.83%) and lowest in senile group (19.60%) whereas Bhaskar (2017) recorded highest prevalence in dogs aged between 6 months to 4 years. The higher prevalence of anaemia observed in pups may be attributed to their immature immune system, which renders them more susceptible to viral and parasitic infections which often lead to haemolysis, blood loss, or impaired erythropoiesis, thereby contributing to the development of anaemia in the younger animals.
 
Gender wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs
 
Gender wise prevalence of anaemia was found significantly higher in male dogs i.e. 45.22 per cent when compared to female dogs i.e. 37.08 per cent (Table 3). The present findings are in accordance with the previous studies carried out by Panchal  et al. (2022) who reported highest prevalence in males (68.50%) than in females (31.50%) whereas Tandel  et al. (2016) reported slightly higher incidence in male dogs (52.94%) than in females (47.06%).

Table 3: Gender wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


 
Breed wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs
 
Breed wise prevalence of anaemia varied significantly with the highest (54.99 per cent) occurrence recorded in Labrador Retriever dogs (Table 4).

Table 4: Breed wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


       
Variations in breed wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs was earlier reported by various authors. Bhat  et al. (2016), Shah  et al. (2020) and Panchal  et al. (2022) found highest prevalence in Labradors, however, Singh  et al. (2012) reported higher prevalence in mixed or indigenous breed (52.33%), Bhaskar  et al. (2017) reported highest incidence in German shepherds (23.42%) whereas Meshram  et al. (2019) reported in Mastiffs and chihuahua. The variations in breed wise occurrence across studies might be due to regional differences in breed distribution, management practices, environmental conditions and the nature of cases presented to veterinary hospitals. The high prevalence in Labradors may be attributed to their greater population density and popularity as companion animals in urban regions, leading to overrepresentation in hospital-based studies.
 
Clinical assessment of anaemia in dogs
 
Clinical assessment of anaemia was made by recording various parameters viz. rectal temperature, respiration rate, heart rate, color of visible mucus membrane, capillary refill time and appetite status in dogs found anaemic during the study. The most common clinical signs observed under the present study were hypothermia (44.07%), tachycardia (66.67%), tachypnoea (65.42%), pale mucous membrane (53.56%), capillary refill time of 2-3 seconds (39.45%) and anorexia (51.69%) (Table 5). Hassan  et al. (2022) recorded most common clinical manifestations in anaemic dogs as pale mucous membranes, tachycardia, tachypnea and low performance which are in accordance with the present study. Similar findings were reported by Tandel et al., (2016), Bhaskar (2017) and Hazarika (2022).

Table 5: Clinical parameters associated with anaemia in dogs.


       
Unlike hyperthermia, which was commonly associated with infections such as babesiosis and ehrlichiosis, hypothermia may reflect a reduced metabolic rate. Compensatory responses were typically indicated by tachypnea and tachycardia, whereas bradypnea may signal exhaustion in the animal (Bhaskar, 2017). A hallmark clinical sign of anaemia was pale mucous membranes which was visible in non-pigmented areas such as the conjunctiva, mouth, penis, vulva and underlying skin. The pallor may be resulting from peripheral vasoconstriction and reduced blood flow to vital organs (Wintrobe et al., 1974), reduced renal erythropoietin production, blood loss (e.g., melena) or decreased RBC survival due to uremic toxicity (Cowgill, 2003). However, the absence of pallor does not rule out anaemia and it may also occur due to shock or circulatory disturbances (Evans et al., 1987). Conversely, congested mucous membranes may indicate severe dehydration, while icteric mucosa suggests hemolysis or liver dysfunction.
 
Classification of anaemia in dogs
 
Classification of anaemia in dogs based on severity
 
The anaemic dogs (n=801) included in the study were categorized based on severity of anaemia into four distinct groups: mild, moderate, severe and very severe anaemia. The present classification was made in accordance with haemato- logical reference ranges as described by Tvedten (2005).
       
A majority of anaemic dogs (440 dogs; 54.93%) were classified as having mild anaemia, indicating a slight reduction in haemoglobin levels or packed cell volume (PCV) (Table 6). The present findings were in accordance with Tvedten (2022)  and Liu and Su (2015), the latter reporting highest (42.6%) prevalence of mild anaemia in dogs. However, Chervier et al., (2012) and Singh  et al. (2012) reported highest prevalence of moderate anaemia in dogs. The predominance of mild to moderate anaemia in dogs suggests that most cases were detected and presented at early stages of disease progression. The present study supports the above findings and highlights the importance of early diagnosis and intervention to prevent progression to critical stages.

Table 6: Classification of anaemia in dogs based on severity.


 
Morphological classification
 
Classification of anaemia in dogs based on erythrocytic indices
 
In the present study the most prevalent morphological subtype was microcytic hypochromic anaemia which was observed in 314 dogs (39.20%) (Table 7). The findings are consistent with the previous reports of Swami  et al. (2024) and Meshram  et al. (2019), who also documented a high prevalence of microcytic hypochromic anaemia in dogs (44.74% and 59.09%, respectively). The predominance of this subtype was commonly associated with chronic parasitic infestations, gastrointestinal blood loss and nutritional iron deficiency, which were frequent in both pet and stray dog populations in India. Microcytic hypochromic anaemia reflects impaired haemoglobin synthesis, often secondary to inadequate iron availability or chronic inflammatory states, both of which were prevalent in canine populations exposed to suboptimal management and environmental conditions.

Table 7: Classification of anaemia in dogs based on erythrocytic indices.


 
Prevalence of regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia in dogs
 
The majority of anaemic dogs (642 out of 801; 80.15%) were diagnosed with regenerative anaemia, indicating an active bone marrow response characterized by the release of immature erythrocytes (reticulocytes) into circulation. Further, non-regenerative anaemia was observed in 159 dogs (19.85%), reflecting inadequate or suppressed erythropoietic activity (Table 8). Regenerative anaemia was typically associated with causes such as haemorrhage, haemolysis, parasitism, or immune-mediated destruction of erythrocytes and was commonly linked with chronic kidney disease, bone marrow disorders, endocrinopathies, or chronic inflammatory states, wherein the bone marrow fails to mount an appropriate regenerative response.

Table 8: Prevalence of regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia in dogs.


 
Degree of regeneration
 
The regenerative response to anaemia in dogs was further evaluated based on the absolute reticulocyte count (/μL of blood), which serves as a reliable marker of bone marrow activity. On the basis of absolute reticulocyte count the highest degree of regeneration was of moderate type i.e. 386 dogs (48.19%) followed by mild degree of regeneration in 231 (28.84%) dogs, normal regeneration in 159 (19.85%) dogs and marked regeneration in 25 (3.12%) dogs only (Table 9). Saraniya  et al. (2015) reported that non- regenerative anaemia (65.12%) had higher prevalence compared to regenerative anaemia (34.8%). Chervier et al., (2012) reported that non- regenerative anaemia predominated (67%) when compared to regenerative anaemia (55.2%). Among regenerative cases, a large proportion of dogs demonstrated a moderate degree of regeneration, indicating an active erythropoietic response likely due to haemolysis or recent blood loss. These findings emphasize that while the majority of anaemic dogs showed a regenerative response, the extent of regeneration varied, with nearly half displaying a moderate regenerative response and highlighting the dynamic nature of erythropoiesis in clinical canine anaemia.

Table 9: Classification of anaemia in dogs based on degree of regeneration.


 
Anaemia and associated clinical conditions in dogs
 
In the present study, anaemia was observed in association with a wide range of systemic disorders in dogs. Among the identified causes, renal disorders constituted the major underlying condition, accounting for 124 cases (15.48%), followed closely by hepatic disorders with 118 cases (14.73%) (Table 10). The results indicate that renal and hepatic disorders were the most frequent systemic conditions associated with anaemia in dogs, followed by infectious and parasitic causes. Further, the neoplastic, reproductive, traumatic and miscellaneous disorders may also contribute to a smaller proportion of cases. Panchal  et al. (2022) conducted similar studies and reported that the highest prevalence of anaemia was found associated with GIT disorders (22.05%), followed with endo-parasitic (6.30%), ecto-parasitic (15.75%), haemoprotozoan (2.36%) and viral (14.96%) infections and lowest in Pyometra (0.79%) affected dogs. Similarly, Hassan  et al. (2022) conducted studies to find out the common etiopathologies of anaemia in dogs and reported that parvo viral infection, ectoparasitic infestation, malnutrition and hepatic or renal diseases were the main four definitive causes of anaemia. Hemoprotozoan infections such as babesiosis are known to induce hemolytic anemia through destruction of erythrocytes and immune-mediated mechanisms (Shil et al., 2022). Systemic disorders including renal and cardiac diseases are also associated with hematological alterations in dogs and may contribute to the development of anaemia (Hazorika  et al., 2025; Patowary et al., 2022; Neeladevi et al., 2024). The present study also highlights the multifactorial nature of canine anaemia and shows the importance of thorough clinical and diagnostic evaluation to identify the underlying etiology.

Table 10: Anaemia and associated clinical conditions in dogs.

CONCLUSION

The present investigation highlights anaemia as a common and clinically important condition among dogs in the Jabalpur region, with an overall prevalence of 41.44%. The anaemic condition was found predominantly mild to moderate in severity, with microcytic hypochromic and regenerative forms being most frequent. Age, breed and sex were found to influence susceptibility, with higher occurrence in puppies, males and Labradors. Renal and hepatic disorders were the major systemic diseases associated with anaemia, followed by haemoparasitic and infectious causes, emphasizing its multifactorial nature. The study highlights the need for comprehensive diagnostic evaluation including clinical, haematological and biochemical parameters for accurate classification and identification of the underlying etiology. An early diagnosis and timely therapeutic intervention can substantially improve clinical outcomes and reduce mortality/ morbidity associated with anaemia in dogs. Regular screening of canine populations for anaemia and identification of the underlying etiology was recommended as a part of routine in veterinary clinical practice.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this study.
 

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    Full Research Article

    A Comprehensive Study on the Prevalence, Classification and Clinical Trends of Anaemia in Dogs

    A
    Aditya Pratap1,*
    A
    Amita Tiwari1
    D
    Devendra Kumar Gupta1
    D
    Dushyant Kumar1
    S
    Salil Kumar Pathak1
    V
    Varsha Mishra1
    S
    Shashank Vishvakarma2
    J
    Jyoti3
    1Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    2Department of Veterinary Gynaecology and Obstetrics, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    3Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Anaemia is a common and clinically significant condition in dogs, often occurring as a secondary manifestation of underlying systemic, infectious, or metabolic disorders. It adversely affects the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood and overall health status. The present study was undertaken to determine the prevalence, classification and associated clinical conditions of anaemia in dogs presented to the Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur (M.P.).

    Methods: The study was conducted over a period of twelve months, from May 2024 to April 2025. A total of 10,785 dogs were screened based on clinical signs of anaemia such as pale mucous membranes, lethargy and weakness. Out of these, 1,933 were suspected and 801 were confirmed anaemic based on clinical, haematological and biochemical evaluations. Anaemia was classified according to its severity, erythrocytic indices (MCV and MCHC), regenerative response (reticulocyte count) and etiology. Detailed investigations including liver and kidney function tests, rapid antigen tests, ultrasonography and fecal examinations were performed to identify associated disorders.

    Result: The overall prevalence of anaemia in dogs was 41.44%. Age-wise, the highest prevalence was recorded in puppies (51.06%) and on gender-wise, in males (45.22%). Labradors (54.99%) were the most affected breed. Clinically, pale mucous membranes (53.56%), tachycardia (66.67%), tachypnoea (65.42%) and anorexia (51.69%) were the most common findings. Based on severity, mild anaemia (54.93%) was most prevalent. Morphologically, microcytic hypochromic anaemia (39.20%) predominated, followed by normocytic normochromic anaemia (21.72%). Regenerative anaemia accounted for 80.15% of cases and non-regenerative for 19.85%, with moderate regeneration observed in 48.19% of cases. Among etiological categories, renal disorders (15.48%) and hepatic disorders (14.73%) were the leading causes, followed by haemoparasitic infections (10.11%), neoplasia (8.36%) and viral infections (8.11%).

    INTRODUCTION

    Canine (Canis familaris), “oldest companion animal”, plays most important role in human lives as a best companion due to their fundamental behavioral characters like obedience, loyalty, adoptability, sensitive olfaction and investigating behavior. Canine are susceptible to a variety of illnesses, among which anaemia ranks high as a subsequent complication of several ailments.
           
    Anaemia in dogs is a significant concern in veterinary medicine, reflecting the complex connection between canine physiology and numerous health problems. It affects dogs across all breeds and age groups, with serious implications for their overall health. Anaemia is defined as a condition in which the body has a decreased number of circulating erythrocytes (RBCs) or decrease in hemoglobin concentration per unit volume of blood. Anaemia can also be defined as reduction in number of the erythrocytes in an animal for that particular age, species, breed and geographic location (Vegad and Swamy, 2010). It can either be due to decreased production of erythrocytes or hemoglobin or increased destruction of red blood cells (RBCs). It is therefore associated with reduction in red cell count or volume of red cell. Physiologically, it is defined as a condition in which the circulated blood doesn’t have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen to the tissue effectively. It is characterized by reduction in haemoglobin (Hb), haematocrit (Hct) or total erythrocyte count (TEC) per unit volume of blood in a normally hydrated animal (Aird, 2000). It can develop from loss, destruction or lack of production of RBC. The most important abnormality in anaemia is the hypoxemia and subsequent tissue hypoxia that results from the reduced hemoglobin concentration and oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. Several systemic and infectious diseases can alter hematological parameters in dogs, leading to anemia and related clinical manifestations (Neeladevi et al., 2024; Patowary et al., 2022).
           
    Anemic patients typically display clinical signs such as pallor, lethargy, malaise, exercise intolerance, tachycardia as well as strong pulse intensity (Naigamwalla et al., 2012). It is the reflection of an underlying disease process mainly secondary to hemorrhage, hemolysis, trauma, coagulation disorders, gastrointestinal parasitism, hemoprotozoan infections, renal failure and nutritional disorders, etc. rather than being a primary disease.
           
    Anaemia can be classified in different ways on the basis of etiology, erythrocytic indices and cell morphology. Classification of anaemia as regenerative or non-regenerative is helpful in determination of prognosis and monitoring of treatment response. The erythrocyte indices viz. mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) are used to characterize and classify anaemia (Susan and Justin, 1998).

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Location and place of work
     
    The study was conducted in the Department of Veterinary Medicine, veterinary clinical complex (VCC), College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur (M.P.).
     
    Duration of work
     
    The study was conducted for the period of 12 months i.e. from May 2024 to April 2025.
     
    Statutory permission to undertake the research work
     
    The present study was undertaken after the approval from the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC). The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the IAEC of Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India (CPCSEA Registration No. 2071/GO/Re/S/19/CPCSEA). Adequate measures were taken to minimize animal discomfort and ensure humane handling during sample collection and clinical examination.
     
    Animals
     
    For this study, a total of 10,785 dogs presented at Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, NDVSU, Jabalpur (M.P.) for a period of 12 months i.e. from May 2024 to April 2025, were screened on the basis of history and presence of clinical signs indicative of anaemia i.e. pale mucous membrane, lethargy, decreased appetite, depression, colour of urine, haemoglobinuria, color of feces, melena, high body temperature, enlarged lymph nodes, vomiting, weight loss, oedema etc.
           
    Out of 10.785 dogs, a total of 1.933 dogs showed clinical signs associated with anaemia. Out of which 801 dogs were found anaemic basing on clinical, haematological and biochemical evaluations.
     
    Collection of samples
     
    Blood sample
     
    Approximately 3 ml of blood were collected aseptically from saphenous or cephalic vein from each dog suspected for anaemia.
     
    Faecal sample
     
    Faecal samples were collected directly from rectum of dogs using gloved finger or with sterile swabs and were send to the laboratory for further examination.
     
    Parameters of the study
     
    History
     
    Complete history of age, breed, sex etc. was recorded in all the suspected cases of anaemia.
     
    Clinical examination
     
    All the dogs were examined for the presence of clinical symptoms viz pale mucus membrane, enlarged lymph nodes, weakness and weight loss if any.
     
    Classification
     
    The data collected from anaemic dog was analyzed according to the haematological parameters and classified on the basis of severity, degree of regeneration, erythrocytic indices and various etiologies.
     
    Severity of anaemia
     
    All the cases of anaemia were classified as mild, moderate, severe and very severe as described by Tvedten (2005).
     
    Differentiation of regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia
     
    The regenerative anaemia was identified on the basis of reticulocyte (per cent) and/or number of absolute reticulocyte (/µL) count.
     
    Degree of regeneration
     
    The absolute reticulocytes (/μL) were evaluated for degree of regenerative anaemia. Degree of regeneration were estimated on the basis of number of absolute reticulocytes count (/μL) (Cowgill et al., 2003).
     
    Morphological classification
     
    Morphological classification of anaemia was done on the basis of erythrocyte indices.
     
    Etiological classification
     
    Anaemic dogs were subjected to detailed clinical, hematological and biochemical evaluations to determine the underlying etiology of anaemia or the associated clinical conditions. Classification was based on haematological findings in conjunction with specific diagnostic tests targeting various organ systems and potential causative agents.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Prevalence of anaemia in dogs
     
    In the present study to determine the prevalence of anaemia in dogs at Jabalpur, an epidemiological study was conducted for a period of twelve months i.e., from May, 2024 to April, 2025. A total of 10.785 dogs presented to Veterinary Clinical Complex, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, NDVSU, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, were screened for the presence of clinical signs indicative of anaemia, out of which 1.933 dogs showed clinical signs associated with anaemia. Among 1,933 suspected dogs, 801 were found positive for anaemia basing on clinical signs, haematological and biochemical evaluations. The study showed an overall prevalence of 41.44 per cent of anaemia in dogs in Jabalpur (Table 1).

    Table 1: Overall prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


           
    The findings of the current study are in close agreement with earlier reports. Bhat et al., (2016) documented a prevalence of 44.83% in dogs in Punjab, which is comparable to the 41.44% recorded in the present study. However, variations in prevalence have been reported in different geographic regions. For instance, Meshram  et al. (2019) reported a higher prevalence of 58.33% in Mumbai and Singh  et al. (2012) reported 47.44% in the Jammu region, whereas Panchal  et al. (2022) reported a markedly lower prevalence of 7.86% in Gujarat. The variations in prevalence of anaemia among dogs may be attributed to several factors which include demographic differences such as age, breed, sex and overall health status of the population. It is important to recognize that anaemia itself is not a disease but a clinical indicator of an underlying pathological condition. Therefore, variations in prevalence likely reflect differences in the distribution of causative factors and husbandry practices across different canine populations and geographical regions.
     
    Age wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs
     
    The dogs of varying ages included in the study were classified into six categories i.e. puppy, juvenile, young adults, mature adults, senior dogs and geriatric. The age wise prevalence of anaemia was found significantly higher (51.06%) in puppy (Table 2).

    Table 2: Age wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


           
    The result of present study correlates well with the findings of Singh  et al. (2012), who reported highest prevalence of anaemia in dogs below 6 months of age (44.61%) and lowest in 3-6 years of age group (7.69%). Similarly, Mondal  et al. (2019) found highest prevalence in age group <1 year (58.26%). In addition, Meshram  et al. (2019) reported highest incidence in young age group (38.46%) whereas Shah  et al. (2020) under 1 year of age. On the contrary, Tandel  et al. (2016) reported highest incidence of anaemia in the adult dogs (58.83%) and lowest in senile group (19.60%) whereas Bhaskar (2017) recorded highest prevalence in dogs aged between 6 months to 4 years. The higher prevalence of anaemia observed in pups may be attributed to their immature immune system, which renders them more susceptible to viral and parasitic infections which often lead to haemolysis, blood loss, or impaired erythropoiesis, thereby contributing to the development of anaemia in the younger animals.
     
    Gender wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs
     
    Gender wise prevalence of anaemia was found significantly higher in male dogs i.e. 45.22 per cent when compared to female dogs i.e. 37.08 per cent (Table 3). The present findings are in accordance with the previous studies carried out by Panchal  et al. (2022) who reported highest prevalence in males (68.50%) than in females (31.50%) whereas Tandel  et al. (2016) reported slightly higher incidence in male dogs (52.94%) than in females (47.06%).

    Table 3: Gender wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


     
    Breed wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs
     
    Breed wise prevalence of anaemia varied significantly with the highest (54.99 per cent) occurrence recorded in Labrador Retriever dogs (Table 4).

    Table 4: Breed wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs.


           
    Variations in breed wise prevalence of anaemia in dogs was earlier reported by various authors. Bhat  et al. (2016), Shah  et al. (2020) and Panchal  et al. (2022) found highest prevalence in Labradors, however, Singh  et al. (2012) reported higher prevalence in mixed or indigenous breed (52.33%), Bhaskar  et al. (2017) reported highest incidence in German shepherds (23.42%) whereas Meshram  et al. (2019) reported in Mastiffs and chihuahua. The variations in breed wise occurrence across studies might be due to regional differences in breed distribution, management practices, environmental conditions and the nature of cases presented to veterinary hospitals. The high prevalence in Labradors may be attributed to their greater population density and popularity as companion animals in urban regions, leading to overrepresentation in hospital-based studies.
     
    Clinical assessment of anaemia in dogs
     
    Clinical assessment of anaemia was made by recording various parameters viz. rectal temperature, respiration rate, heart rate, color of visible mucus membrane, capillary refill time and appetite status in dogs found anaemic during the study. The most common clinical signs observed under the present study were hypothermia (44.07%), tachycardia (66.67%), tachypnoea (65.42%), pale mucous membrane (53.56%), capillary refill time of 2-3 seconds (39.45%) and anorexia (51.69%) (Table 5). Hassan  et al. (2022) recorded most common clinical manifestations in anaemic dogs as pale mucous membranes, tachycardia, tachypnea and low performance which are in accordance with the present study. Similar findings were reported by Tandel et al., (2016), Bhaskar (2017) and Hazarika (2022).

    Table 5: Clinical parameters associated with anaemia in dogs.


           
    Unlike hyperthermia, which was commonly associated with infections such as babesiosis and ehrlichiosis, hypothermia may reflect a reduced metabolic rate. Compensatory responses were typically indicated by tachypnea and tachycardia, whereas bradypnea may signal exhaustion in the animal (Bhaskar, 2017). A hallmark clinical sign of anaemia was pale mucous membranes which was visible in non-pigmented areas such as the conjunctiva, mouth, penis, vulva and underlying skin. The pallor may be resulting from peripheral vasoconstriction and reduced blood flow to vital organs (Wintrobe et al., 1974), reduced renal erythropoietin production, blood loss (e.g., melena) or decreased RBC survival due to uremic toxicity (Cowgill, 2003). However, the absence of pallor does not rule out anaemia and it may also occur due to shock or circulatory disturbances (Evans et al., 1987). Conversely, congested mucous membranes may indicate severe dehydration, while icteric mucosa suggests hemolysis or liver dysfunction.
     
    Classification of anaemia in dogs
     
    Classification of anaemia in dogs based on severity
     
    The anaemic dogs (n=801) included in the study were categorized based on severity of anaemia into four distinct groups: mild, moderate, severe and very severe anaemia. The present classification was made in accordance with haemato- logical reference ranges as described by Tvedten (2005).
           
    A majority of anaemic dogs (440 dogs; 54.93%) were classified as having mild anaemia, indicating a slight reduction in haemoglobin levels or packed cell volume (PCV) (Table 6). The present findings were in accordance with Tvedten (2022)  and Liu and Su (2015), the latter reporting highest (42.6%) prevalence of mild anaemia in dogs. However, Chervier et al., (2012) and Singh  et al. (2012) reported highest prevalence of moderate anaemia in dogs. The predominance of mild to moderate anaemia in dogs suggests that most cases were detected and presented at early stages of disease progression. The present study supports the above findings and highlights the importance of early diagnosis and intervention to prevent progression to critical stages.

    Table 6: Classification of anaemia in dogs based on severity.


     
    Morphological classification
     
    Classification of anaemia in dogs based on erythrocytic indices
     
    In the present study the most prevalent morphological subtype was microcytic hypochromic anaemia which was observed in 314 dogs (39.20%) (Table 7). The findings are consistent with the previous reports of Swami  et al. (2024) and Meshram  et al. (2019), who also documented a high prevalence of microcytic hypochromic anaemia in dogs (44.74% and 59.09%, respectively). The predominance of this subtype was commonly associated with chronic parasitic infestations, gastrointestinal blood loss and nutritional iron deficiency, which were frequent in both pet and stray dog populations in India. Microcytic hypochromic anaemia reflects impaired haemoglobin synthesis, often secondary to inadequate iron availability or chronic inflammatory states, both of which were prevalent in canine populations exposed to suboptimal management and environmental conditions.

    Table 7: Classification of anaemia in dogs based on erythrocytic indices.


     
    Prevalence of regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia in dogs
     
    The majority of anaemic dogs (642 out of 801; 80.15%) were diagnosed with regenerative anaemia, indicating an active bone marrow response characterized by the release of immature erythrocytes (reticulocytes) into circulation. Further, non-regenerative anaemia was observed in 159 dogs (19.85%), reflecting inadequate or suppressed erythropoietic activity (Table 8). Regenerative anaemia was typically associated with causes such as haemorrhage, haemolysis, parasitism, or immune-mediated destruction of erythrocytes and was commonly linked with chronic kidney disease, bone marrow disorders, endocrinopathies, or chronic inflammatory states, wherein the bone marrow fails to mount an appropriate regenerative response.

    Table 8: Prevalence of regenerative and non-regenerative anaemia in dogs.


     
    Degree of regeneration
     
    The regenerative response to anaemia in dogs was further evaluated based on the absolute reticulocyte count (/μL of blood), which serves as a reliable marker of bone marrow activity. On the basis of absolute reticulocyte count the highest degree of regeneration was of moderate type i.e. 386 dogs (48.19%) followed by mild degree of regeneration in 231 (28.84%) dogs, normal regeneration in 159 (19.85%) dogs and marked regeneration in 25 (3.12%) dogs only (Table 9). Saraniya  et al. (2015) reported that non- regenerative anaemia (65.12%) had higher prevalence compared to regenerative anaemia (34.8%). Chervier et al., (2012) reported that non- regenerative anaemia predominated (67%) when compared to regenerative anaemia (55.2%). Among regenerative cases, a large proportion of dogs demonstrated a moderate degree of regeneration, indicating an active erythropoietic response likely due to haemolysis or recent blood loss. These findings emphasize that while the majority of anaemic dogs showed a regenerative response, the extent of regeneration varied, with nearly half displaying a moderate regenerative response and highlighting the dynamic nature of erythropoiesis in clinical canine anaemia.

    Table 9: Classification of anaemia in dogs based on degree of regeneration.


     
    Anaemia and associated clinical conditions in dogs
     
    In the present study, anaemia was observed in association with a wide range of systemic disorders in dogs. Among the identified causes, renal disorders constituted the major underlying condition, accounting for 124 cases (15.48%), followed closely by hepatic disorders with 118 cases (14.73%) (Table 10). The results indicate that renal and hepatic disorders were the most frequent systemic conditions associated with anaemia in dogs, followed by infectious and parasitic causes. Further, the neoplastic, reproductive, traumatic and miscellaneous disorders may also contribute to a smaller proportion of cases. Panchal  et al. (2022) conducted similar studies and reported that the highest prevalence of anaemia was found associated with GIT disorders (22.05%), followed with endo-parasitic (6.30%), ecto-parasitic (15.75%), haemoprotozoan (2.36%) and viral (14.96%) infections and lowest in Pyometra (0.79%) affected dogs. Similarly, Hassan  et al. (2022) conducted studies to find out the common etiopathologies of anaemia in dogs and reported that parvo viral infection, ectoparasitic infestation, malnutrition and hepatic or renal diseases were the main four definitive causes of anaemia. Hemoprotozoan infections such as babesiosis are known to induce hemolytic anemia through destruction of erythrocytes and immune-mediated mechanisms (Shil et al., 2022). Systemic disorders including renal and cardiac diseases are also associated with hematological alterations in dogs and may contribute to the development of anaemia (Hazorika  et al., 2025; Patowary et al., 2022; Neeladevi et al., 2024). The present study also highlights the multifactorial nature of canine anaemia and shows the importance of thorough clinical and diagnostic evaluation to identify the underlying etiology.

    Table 10: Anaemia and associated clinical conditions in dogs.

    CONCLUSION

    The present investigation highlights anaemia as a common and clinically important condition among dogs in the Jabalpur region, with an overall prevalence of 41.44%. The anaemic condition was found predominantly mild to moderate in severity, with microcytic hypochromic and regenerative forms being most frequent. Age, breed and sex were found to influence susceptibility, with higher occurrence in puppies, males and Labradors. Renal and hepatic disorders were the major systemic diseases associated with anaemia, followed by haemoparasitic and infectious causes, emphasizing its multifactorial nature. The study highlights the need for comprehensive diagnostic evaluation including clinical, haematological and biochemical parameters for accurate classification and identification of the underlying etiology. An early diagnosis and timely therapeutic intervention can substantially improve clinical outcomes and reduce mortality/ morbidity associated with anaemia in dogs. Regular screening of canine populations for anaemia and identification of the underlying etiology was recommended as a part of routine in veterinary clinical practice.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this study.
     

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