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Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Impact of Water Quality on Productivity of Livestock in Arid and Semi-arid Regions- Strategies for Climate Resilience: A Review

A
Arun Kumar1,2,*
T
Tara Bothra2
A
Abhishek Gupta2
M
Mohan Lal Choudhary2
D
Dinesh Jain2
B
Bharat Lal Meena2
K
Krishan Dutt3
1Livestock Research Station, Beechwal, Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner-334 001, Rajasthan, India.
2Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner-334 001, Rajasthan, India.
3Department of CSE, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Gutur-522 302, Andhra Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

One of the most urgent issues facing dryland ecosystems worldwide is water scarcity, since freshwater resources are threatened by rising demand and pervasive pollution. By altering precipitation patterns and groundwater recharge rates, climate variability has made these circumstances worse and increased the amounts of salt in surface and subterranean water sources. Livestock productivity is greatly influenced by the quality of water for animal, which ultimately affects growth, metabolism, reproduction and body temperature, among other functions. Although cattle may be harmed by chemicals added to the water, animals are more resilient to bad water quality than humans. Although tolerance to low water quality varies with differs by species, race and environmental factors. Moreover livestock welfare and productivity can be impacted by poor drinking water quality. Thus, in an era of climate change, this research investigated the effects of low-quality water on livestock productivity and production in arid and semi-arid regions. In desert areas, camels and goats adapt to high salt levels despite differences in their adaptive physiological characteristics, feed, food and water consumption. Nonetheless, for small ruminants, higher water salinity typically correlates with decreased feed intake, impaired growth performance, increased respiration rates and changes in blood profile. The physiological underpinnings of saltwater tolerance in livestock species native to arid regions are still largely unknown, despite continuous research efforts aimed at finding salt-tolerant breeds and comprehending their adaptive mechanisms. Characterizing these adaptive features should be the top priority of future research in order to guide management plans and breeding initiatives for climate-resilient livestock production systems in areas affected by salt.

INTRODUCTION

Due to its influence on temperature fluctuations and precipitation patterns, climate change has significantly increased uncertainty about the availability and quality of freshwater in tropical regions, particularly in desert and dry areas (Papa et al., 2023). Water qualities as well as quantity are crucial factors which directly affect animal feed intake and physiological health, resulting livestock performance and  production outcomes. The key components of water quality are salinity levels (measured as total dissolved solids, or TDS), moisture content, temperature, composition of minerals, pH balance, hardness and microbial contamination (Umar et al., 2014). Due to climate change,  soil salinization and water supply degradation have grown to be maj or global concerns that affect agricultural productivity and plant and animal health (Hamed et al., 2018). Global warming induced sea level rise has further contaminated surface and groundwater supplies, increasing salt levels in many arid and semi-arid regions. Especially in arid regions where freshwater resources are already being jeopardized by shifting climatic patterns, this rise in salinity has a major effect on water quality and poses significant challenges for cattle production systems (Zayed, 2022). Identifying livestock species and breeds that can sustain high levels of productivity for the production of milk and meat under harsh conditions becomes essential in light of these environmental concerns. The economic viability of small-scale farming enterprises could be greatly improved with the help of this understanding (Sisay et al., 2020). Due to water scarcity, dry settings place significant physiological demands on livestock, causing them to experience ongoing water-related stress round the year. Because of their exceptional disease resistance, effective grazing practices, high feed conversion rates and resistance to drought, small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are strongly encouraged to raise sheep, goats and camels (Ciliberti et al., 2022). Sheep and goats can efficiently drink water in semi-arid environments because of their smaller stature and improved water-use systems. During times of scarcity, these adaptive systems provide optimal water usage by improving water absorption and metabolism throughout the gastrointestinal tract (Araújo et al., 2010). The very safe amount of salt that animals can withstand depends on their food, breed, species and environmental circumstances (De lima et al., 2023). Long-term exposure to saline water causes animals to become sensitive to salt. Depending on whether salt is consumed through food or drinking water, different salt sensitivity reactions occur. While deer can withstand at least 6% of salt in their diet (Ru et al., 2004), sheep can withstand high salt concentrations of 5-20%. These species-specific variations emphasize how crucial it is to comprehend personal tolerance thresholds when creating management plans. Developing sustainable methods for agricultural growth in areas with insufficient or degraded water resources requires an understanding of the biological and physiological systems that influence livestock responses to poor water quality. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive critical review examining the impacts of water quality on animal production and health, while evaluating the tolerance capacities of various farm animal species under projected climate change scenarios specifically within dryland agricultural systems.
 
Climate change and water quality in arid and semi-arid regions
 
The most significant factor limiting environmental and economic advancement is water, which is currently impacted by climate change, primarily in Africa (Hirwa et al., 2021). Additionally, due to population growth, economic expansion and shifting consumption patterns, the world’s water demand has increased by an average of 6% over the past century and is still rising at a steady rate of 1% annually (UNESCO and UN-WATER, 2020). The quantity, quality and availability of water needed for basic human requirements will all be impacted by climate change (Fig 1). The ability of billions of people to enjoy their fundamental human rights to water and sanitation may be at danger as a result of this (Ma et al., 2022). Water quality and climate change are inseparable since the former directly impacts the latter through modifications to the hydrological cycle. As temperatures rise, more water evaporation occurs from the surface, causing dryness in some places and more rainfall in others. Additionally, human resource usage and interactions between many environmental elements, including as atmospheric, terrestrial and aquatic processes in a water shed, affect water quality directly and indirectly (Mortsch et al., 2003).

Fig 1: Method for evaluating how climate change is affecting agricultural production systems and water quantity and quality (Cai et al., 2015; Hardelin and Lankoski, 2015).


 
Quality of drinking water for livestock species
 
It is commonly known that water is an essential nutrient that is taken more often and in larger amounts than any other nutrient. It’s interesting to note that about 50% of the human body is made of water, yet this number can change according on sex and body composition. For instance, those who have more body fat have less water in their bodies than people who have more lean muscle mass (Jéquier and Constant, 2010). Numerous factors, such as size, productivity, diet and environmental conditions, affect how much water livestock consume; therefore, high-quality and pure water may boost water intake and livestock profitability (Dyer et al., 2017; Ullah et al., 2021).
 
Impact of saline drinking water on various types of livestock
 
Water serves as a fundamental requirement for all animal species, functioning as an indispensable component for maintaining optimal health and productivity. This vital resource supports numerous physiological processes, including thermoregulation, digestive function, joint lubrication and muscle development, establishing water as the foundation of essential biological mechanisms in livestock (Wright, 2007). However, water quality can be significantly compromised by various contaminants, including elevated salt concentrations, excess nutrients and bacterial contamination. This quality issues become particularly pronounced during drought conditions when water sources become concentrated as volumes decrease (Emon, 2018). It has been shown that excessive levels of dissolved solids in cattle drinking water have a detrimental effect on feed conversion efficiency and growth rates in addition to causing a number of health issues, such as dental and digestive issues. Poor water quality can be fatal in extreme situations (López et al., 2021). The recommended values for dissolved solids in animal water are still not well defined, despite the acknowledged significance of water quality requirements. Even though a number of studies have tried to determine upper threshold limits, the results usually show that animals can withstand doses above these recommended limits without showing any signs of abnormality. According to current recommendations, cattle should have a maximum total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of 3,000 parts per million. One major drawback of the literature currently available is that the majority of articles list the upper limits that are permitted for different farm animal species without providing data from controlled experimental trials (Dyer et al., 2017). Given how important water quality is to animal production systems, this evidence gap is very worrisome. Despite Africa’s susceptibility to the effects of climate change on water supplies, adequate water quality regulations for farm animals are still lacking, making the situation particularly difficult there (Isaacman and Musemwa, 2021). The quantity and quality of water are increasingly threatened by climate change and fluctuation, which makes the need for suitable standards to be established more precisely. Long-term agricultural development and food security depend on the sustainable monitoring and management of water resources for animal production systems, which is crucial given the economic significance of the livestock industries in many areas. The advancement of cattle production sustainability worldwide depends critically on the creation of evidence-based water quality standards backed by thorough experimental research.
 
Impacts on livestock productivity and health
 
Animal productivity
 
Adequate drinking water is required in animal farms in order to maintain proper output levels. In many parts of the world, the agricultural sector will use more water of poor quality as a result of water shortages, which are becoming a bigger worry in light of the changing climate (López et al., 2021). Numerous physiological states in ruminant animals, such as growth rate, milk production and reproduction process, can be influenced by water quality. One major economic downside is the overuse of water by animal (Table 4). Furthermore, the reality that harsh or semiarid locations contain high salt water can decrease the overall value of products produced by those livestock (Costa et al., 2021).
 
Milk yield and composition
 
Highly saline water was found to cause significant yield decreases in classical studies; more modern experiments have shown varying responses based on salinity range and adaptability, however heat stress plus poor water quality often increases yield losses (Umar et al., 2014; Challis et al., 1987). The milk yield and composition (lactose, protein, fat) of cows in a hot climate generating 20 to 25 kg of milk were unaffected by a water TDS of 3574 mg/L as opposed to 449 mg/L, according to (Bahman et al., 1993). However, the decrease in milk yield as the research study carried on was smaller at the higher TDS level. Additionally, they observed that cows with greater TDS levels typically had higher plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones and minerals. In a hot, dry climate, (Solomon et al., 1995) discovered that improving the water quality through desalination raised the milk yield. The research demonstrated by Valtorta et al. (2008) that while 10,000 mg/L TDS increased water consumption, it had no effect on the body weight, condition score, milk production, or milk composition of grazing Holstein cattle.
 
Meat production
 
By lowering the risk of disease outbreaks, producers that place a high priority on the supply of clean water not only enhance the health of their cattle but also ultimately saved money (Wagner and Engle, 2021). On the other hand, selecting low-quality water might seem like a cost-saving measure at first, but it eventually puts the production and health of the herd at risk. Despite this, it is also the most disregarded chemical, which negatively impacts producer profitability and animal productivity and health. Animal performance, dry matter and water intake are all negatively impacted by high-salt water. The effects of high-sulfate water are more detrimental to animals than those of high-chloride water. The results of Castro et al. (2017), who found that different salt levels in water (ranging from 640 to 8326 mg tds/l) had no effect on lamb slaughter weight, cold carcass weight, or hot carcass weight, further validated these findings. These conclusions were challenged by Zayed’s (2022) research finding, which showed that drinking water with different salinities positively impacted the carcass characteristics and edible non-carcass parts of barki lambs. This implies that lowering the amount of salt in drinking water could improve the characteristics of lamb carcasses. However, research by (Ahmed et al., 2015; Pearce et al. (2010). indicated that although saltbush (Atriplex) feeding decreased the dressing % in barki lambs, it had no discernible influence on the animals’ slaughter or carcass weight. It should be mentioned that nothing is now known about how the salinity of drinking water influences the properties of sheep or goat carcasses, particularly in arid environments.
 
Average daily gain
 
Additionally, Patterson et al. (2003) found that when water TDS increased from 1,019 to 4,835 ppm, the average daily gain in growing steers decreased by 27%. In a similar vein, Patterson et al., (2004) found that steers given saline water with 7,268 ppm TDS had a 65% (P<0.05) lower daily growth than steers given 1,226 ppm TDS. Furthermore, Sharma et al., (2017) demonstrated that Murrah buffalo calves given water containing 8789 mg TDS/l experienced a 19.3% decline in average daily growth as compared to the group that received water containing 557 mg TDS/l. However, several research found that saline water had no effect on body weight increase. For instance, Yousfi et al., (2016) discovered that providing water containing 7 g NaCl/l had no effect on the average daily gain in Barbarine lamb. Comparable outcomes were observed in rabbits (Ahmed and Abdel-Rahman, 2004), heifers (Alves et al., 2017) and beef cattle (López et al., 2016).
 
Water quality and its impact on dairy cattle performance
 
Water constitutes a substantial proportion of bovine body composition, representing between 56% and 81% of total body weight in dairy cows. The quality of water provided to livestock represents a critical factor influencing consumption patterns and presents considerable challenges for both beef and dairy production systems (Singh et al., 2022). Water quality can be significantly compromised by the presence of dissolved salts and various hazardous substances, including biological pathogens and chemical contaminants that adversely affect its suitability for animal consumption. Groundwater sources are generally considered superior to surface water for livestock consumption due to reduced contamination risks. The relationship between water quality and animal performance extends beyond simple consumption, as water quality directly influences both milk production efficiency and milk composition through the bioaccumulation of dissolved substances in mammary tissues and other body systems (Giri et al., 2020). Suboptimal water quality or restricted access to adequate water supplies can result in decreased milk yield, impaired animal growth and the development of various health disorders in dairy cattle (ILRI, 2015). Several primary water quality concerns significantly impact livestock production systems. These include elevated mineral concentrations resulting in excessive salinity levels, high nitrogen compound concentrations (particularly nitrates and nitrites), bacterial contamination, proliferation of blue-green algae and inadvertent contamination from petroleum products, agricultural pesticides, or fertilizer compounds (Dyer et al., 2017). Numerous factors, such as species traits, breed genetics, animal age, nutritional state, physiological condition and current environmental conditions, influence the physiological reaction to consuming saline water (Runa et al., 2019). Notwithstanding these variances, livestock animals exhibit varied levels of tolerance to drinking water salinity, with thresholds for several animal groups recorded (Table 1 and 2).

Table 1: Impacts of salty drinking water on different kinds of animals.



Table 2: Total soluble salts for beef cattle in water.


       
Optimizing livestock production systems and upholding animal welfare standards need an understanding of these tolerance thresholds as well as the intricate relationships between water quality indicators and animal performance. To guarantee sustainable and successful dairy operations, these complex relationships must be taken into account while developing comprehensive water quality management programs.
 
Water requirements and quality management in cattle production systems
 
Adequate water, both in terms of quantity and quality, is essential for the successful production of cattle. In order to support cattle productivity and welfare, it is crucial to maintain the proper amount and quality of water (Masters et al., 2007). This is especially important in areas with high temperatures and limited precipitation since factors like pollution and water salinity have a big influence on water quality. In addition to harming animals’ health, pollutants such pesticides, heavy metals, organic waste and blue-green algae can also reduce an animal’s productivity (Smith, 2021). If the right to provide enough water for cattle is upheld, there could be major consequences for animal welfare. Although tolerance varies by animal species as well as type, the animals with the lowest tolerance levels for water contaminants are sheep, cattle, horses, pigs and poultry (Australian and New Zealand Governments (2023). According to Lefebvre et al., (2008), renal function may be linked to animals’ exceptional tolerance for different salt concentrations in their drinking water. The balance and content of physiological fluids are largely controlled by the kidneys and research has demonstrated that sheep given 1.3% Nacl water can develop a salt tolerance without suffering any negative effects. McGregor (2004) asserts that the kidneys’ special adaptations, particularly filtration and salt removal, enable this adjustment. Breeds of ruminants that thrive in arid climates have evolved a number of adaptations to cope with the challenges posed by drought and heat.
       
Understanding these physiological mechanisms and species-specific tolerance levels is crucial for developing effective water management strategies in cattle production systems, particularly in regions where water quality compromised due to environmental constraints or anthropogenic contamination sources (Fig 2, Table 3 and 4).

Fig 2: Various animal species’ tolerance for drinking saline water (Adapted from Golher et al., 2021).



Table 3: Guidelines for the use of saline water in dairy livestock.



Table 4: Productivity impacts of water quality degradation on livestock.


 
Salt requirements and toxicity management in livestock production
 
Macronutrients represent essential dietary components required in substantial quantities throughout an animal’s lifespan to support various physiological processes, growth and developmental functions. Among these nutrients, salt serves as a critical element in blood composition, constituting approximately 0.17% of blood content in the form of sodium and chloride ions and plays a fundamental role in animal growth, production efficiency and reproductive performance (Lata and Mondal, 2021). Mineral supplementation requires careful regulation and consistent provision to livestock systems. Mineral requirements vary significantly based on animal species, breed characteristics, dietary composition, geographical location and production objectives (Johansson, 2008). The sodium content of drinking water represents a crucial factor in determining dietary sodium requirements and overall nutritional balance. Total dissolved salt content in water sources directly influences the mineral load available to animals and must be considered in feed formulation strategies.
       
Salt toxicity typically occurs under specific conditions, including excessive dietary salt concentrations or inadequate water availability. Animals can develop physiological tolerance to elevated salt levels when adaptation occurs gradually and adequate fresh water remains accessible (FAO, 2018). However, insufficient water intake or water deprivation impairs renal salt excretion mechanisms, resulting in sodium accumulation within the central nervous system (CNS). Salt poisoning manifests through two primary mechanisms: direct toxicity from excessive absorption or indirect toxicity resulting from dehydration-induced concentration effects. Clinical manifestations of severe salt poisoning in livestock encompass both gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms, including diarrhea, depression, visual impairment, aggressive behaviour, hyperexcitability, ataxia, head pressing, polydipsia and repetitive oral movements. Progressive symptoms may include seizure activity, coma and potentially fatal outcomes (Ben Meir et al., 2023).
               
The negative effects of salty drinking water on cattle can be evaluated and countered in a number of ways by small-scale farmers with limited resources (Table 5). These tactics include evaluating the quality of water sources and keeping a close eye on and observing their animals. To further address this issue, selectively breeding for resilience, regulating water sources, offering dietary supplements and working with other farmers through knowledge exchange can all be extremely important. These techniques can help farmers make better decisions and mitigate the negative impacts of saline water on their animals, even though they might not totally eliminate these issues (Ogunyiola et al., 2022).

Table 5: Effect of saline water on animal production.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Although fresh, clean water is essential for enhancing animal health, performance and productivity, the current, severe and rapid climate change is negatively impacting drinking water quality globally. Salinity is one of the most important factors in water quality, especially in regions that are prone to drought. Overconsumption of salt over time can disrupt feed and water intake and potentially cause serious health issues, even though salt is necessary for controlling body water content, muscle and nerve function and nutrient absorption. Regional, national and international research on water quality affecting farm animal productivity provides scientific evidence for addressing water scarcity and food security challenges. Despite ongoing uncertainty in climate projections, global and regional climate models, downscaling methodologies and impact assessment tools continue advancing to better address these uncertainties. Future research priorities should focus on comprehensive climate change assessment, including impact evaluation, response mechanisms and adaptation strategies for integrated water and livestock management systems. Given the increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events, improved forecasting of these occurrences and their consequences remains critical for sustainable livestock production.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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    Review Article

    Impact of Water Quality on Productivity of Livestock in Arid and Semi-arid Regions- Strategies for Climate Resilience: A Review

    A
    Arun Kumar1,2,*
    T
    Tara Bothra2
    A
    Abhishek Gupta2
    M
    Mohan Lal Choudhary2
    D
    Dinesh Jain2
    B
    Bharat Lal Meena2
    K
    Krishan Dutt3
    1Livestock Research Station, Beechwal, Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner-334 001, Rajasthan, India.
    2Rajasthan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bikaner-334 001, Rajasthan, India.
    3Department of CSE, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Vaddeswaram, Gutur-522 302, Andhra Pradesh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    One of the most urgent issues facing dryland ecosystems worldwide is water scarcity, since freshwater resources are threatened by rising demand and pervasive pollution. By altering precipitation patterns and groundwater recharge rates, climate variability has made these circumstances worse and increased the amounts of salt in surface and subterranean water sources. Livestock productivity is greatly influenced by the quality of water for animal, which ultimately affects growth, metabolism, reproduction and body temperature, among other functions. Although cattle may be harmed by chemicals added to the water, animals are more resilient to bad water quality than humans. Although tolerance to low water quality varies with differs by species, race and environmental factors. Moreover livestock welfare and productivity can be impacted by poor drinking water quality. Thus, in an era of climate change, this research investigated the effects of low-quality water on livestock productivity and production in arid and semi-arid regions. In desert areas, camels and goats adapt to high salt levels despite differences in their adaptive physiological characteristics, feed, food and water consumption. Nonetheless, for small ruminants, higher water salinity typically correlates with decreased feed intake, impaired growth performance, increased respiration rates and changes in blood profile. The physiological underpinnings of saltwater tolerance in livestock species native to arid regions are still largely unknown, despite continuous research efforts aimed at finding salt-tolerant breeds and comprehending their adaptive mechanisms. Characterizing these adaptive features should be the top priority of future research in order to guide management plans and breeding initiatives for climate-resilient livestock production systems in areas affected by salt.

    INTRODUCTION

    Due to its influence on temperature fluctuations and precipitation patterns, climate change has significantly increased uncertainty about the availability and quality of freshwater in tropical regions, particularly in desert and dry areas (Papa et al., 2023). Water qualities as well as quantity are crucial factors which directly affect animal feed intake and physiological health, resulting livestock performance and  production outcomes. The key components of water quality are salinity levels (measured as total dissolved solids, or TDS), moisture content, temperature, composition of minerals, pH balance, hardness and microbial contamination (Umar et al., 2014). Due to climate change,  soil salinization and water supply degradation have grown to be maj or global concerns that affect agricultural productivity and plant and animal health (Hamed et al., 2018). Global warming induced sea level rise has further contaminated surface and groundwater supplies, increasing salt levels in many arid and semi-arid regions. Especially in arid regions where freshwater resources are already being jeopardized by shifting climatic patterns, this rise in salinity has a major effect on water quality and poses significant challenges for cattle production systems (Zayed, 2022). Identifying livestock species and breeds that can sustain high levels of productivity for the production of milk and meat under harsh conditions becomes essential in light of these environmental concerns. The economic viability of small-scale farming enterprises could be greatly improved with the help of this understanding (Sisay et al., 2020). Due to water scarcity, dry settings place significant physiological demands on livestock, causing them to experience ongoing water-related stress round the year. Because of their exceptional disease resistance, effective grazing practices, high feed conversion rates and resistance to drought, small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa are strongly encouraged to raise sheep, goats and camels (Ciliberti et al., 2022). Sheep and goats can efficiently drink water in semi-arid environments because of their smaller stature and improved water-use systems. During times of scarcity, these adaptive systems provide optimal water usage by improving water absorption and metabolism throughout the gastrointestinal tract (Araújo et al., 2010). The very safe amount of salt that animals can withstand depends on their food, breed, species and environmental circumstances (De lima et al., 2023). Long-term exposure to saline water causes animals to become sensitive to salt. Depending on whether salt is consumed through food or drinking water, different salt sensitivity reactions occur. While deer can withstand at least 6% of salt in their diet (Ru et al., 2004), sheep can withstand high salt concentrations of 5-20%. These species-specific variations emphasize how crucial it is to comprehend personal tolerance thresholds when creating management plans. Developing sustainable methods for agricultural growth in areas with insufficient or degraded water resources requires an understanding of the biological and physiological systems that influence livestock responses to poor water quality. Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive critical review examining the impacts of water quality on animal production and health, while evaluating the tolerance capacities of various farm animal species under projected climate change scenarios specifically within dryland agricultural systems.
     
    Climate change and water quality in arid and semi-arid regions
     
    The most significant factor limiting environmental and economic advancement is water, which is currently impacted by climate change, primarily in Africa (Hirwa et al., 2021). Additionally, due to population growth, economic expansion and shifting consumption patterns, the world’s water demand has increased by an average of 6% over the past century and is still rising at a steady rate of 1% annually (UNESCO and UN-WATER, 2020). The quantity, quality and availability of water needed for basic human requirements will all be impacted by climate change (Fig 1). The ability of billions of people to enjoy their fundamental human rights to water and sanitation may be at danger as a result of this (Ma et al., 2022). Water quality and climate change are inseparable since the former directly impacts the latter through modifications to the hydrological cycle. As temperatures rise, more water evaporation occurs from the surface, causing dryness in some places and more rainfall in others. Additionally, human resource usage and interactions between many environmental elements, including as atmospheric, terrestrial and aquatic processes in a water shed, affect water quality directly and indirectly (Mortsch et al., 2003).

    Fig 1: Method for evaluating how climate change is affecting agricultural production systems and water quantity and quality (Cai et al., 2015; Hardelin and Lankoski, 2015).


     
    Quality of drinking water for livestock species
     
    It is commonly known that water is an essential nutrient that is taken more often and in larger amounts than any other nutrient. It’s interesting to note that about 50% of the human body is made of water, yet this number can change according on sex and body composition. For instance, those who have more body fat have less water in their bodies than people who have more lean muscle mass (Jéquier and Constant, 2010). Numerous factors, such as size, productivity, diet and environmental conditions, affect how much water livestock consume; therefore, high-quality and pure water may boost water intake and livestock profitability (Dyer et al., 2017; Ullah et al., 2021).
     
    Impact of saline drinking water on various types of livestock
     
    Water serves as a fundamental requirement for all animal species, functioning as an indispensable component for maintaining optimal health and productivity. This vital resource supports numerous physiological processes, including thermoregulation, digestive function, joint lubrication and muscle development, establishing water as the foundation of essential biological mechanisms in livestock (Wright, 2007). However, water quality can be significantly compromised by various contaminants, including elevated salt concentrations, excess nutrients and bacterial contamination. This quality issues become particularly pronounced during drought conditions when water sources become concentrated as volumes decrease (Emon, 2018). It has been shown that excessive levels of dissolved solids in cattle drinking water have a detrimental effect on feed conversion efficiency and growth rates in addition to causing a number of health issues, such as dental and digestive issues. Poor water quality can be fatal in extreme situations (López et al., 2021). The recommended values for dissolved solids in animal water are still not well defined, despite the acknowledged significance of water quality requirements. Even though a number of studies have tried to determine upper threshold limits, the results usually show that animals can withstand doses above these recommended limits without showing any signs of abnormality. According to current recommendations, cattle should have a maximum total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of 3,000 parts per million. One major drawback of the literature currently available is that the majority of articles list the upper limits that are permitted for different farm animal species without providing data from controlled experimental trials (Dyer et al., 2017). Given how important water quality is to animal production systems, this evidence gap is very worrisome. Despite Africa’s susceptibility to the effects of climate change on water supplies, adequate water quality regulations for farm animals are still lacking, making the situation particularly difficult there (Isaacman and Musemwa, 2021). The quantity and quality of water are increasingly threatened by climate change and fluctuation, which makes the need for suitable standards to be established more precisely. Long-term agricultural development and food security depend on the sustainable monitoring and management of water resources for animal production systems, which is crucial given the economic significance of the livestock industries in many areas. The advancement of cattle production sustainability worldwide depends critically on the creation of evidence-based water quality standards backed by thorough experimental research.
     
    Impacts on livestock productivity and health
     
    Animal productivity
     
    Adequate drinking water is required in animal farms in order to maintain proper output levels. In many parts of the world, the agricultural sector will use more water of poor quality as a result of water shortages, which are becoming a bigger worry in light of the changing climate (López et al., 2021). Numerous physiological states in ruminant animals, such as growth rate, milk production and reproduction process, can be influenced by water quality. One major economic downside is the overuse of water by animal (Table 4). Furthermore, the reality that harsh or semiarid locations contain high salt water can decrease the overall value of products produced by those livestock (Costa et al., 2021).
     
    Milk yield and composition
     
    Highly saline water was found to cause significant yield decreases in classical studies; more modern experiments have shown varying responses based on salinity range and adaptability, however heat stress plus poor water quality often increases yield losses (Umar et al., 2014; Challis et al., 1987). The milk yield and composition (lactose, protein, fat) of cows in a hot climate generating 20 to 25 kg of milk were unaffected by a water TDS of 3574 mg/L as opposed to 449 mg/L, according to (Bahman et al., 1993). However, the decrease in milk yield as the research study carried on was smaller at the higher TDS level. Additionally, they observed that cows with greater TDS levels typically had higher plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones and minerals. In a hot, dry climate, (Solomon et al., 1995) discovered that improving the water quality through desalination raised the milk yield. The research demonstrated by Valtorta et al. (2008) that while 10,000 mg/L TDS increased water consumption, it had no effect on the body weight, condition score, milk production, or milk composition of grazing Holstein cattle.
     
    Meat production
     
    By lowering the risk of disease outbreaks, producers that place a high priority on the supply of clean water not only enhance the health of their cattle but also ultimately saved money (Wagner and Engle, 2021). On the other hand, selecting low-quality water might seem like a cost-saving measure at first, but it eventually puts the production and health of the herd at risk. Despite this, it is also the most disregarded chemical, which negatively impacts producer profitability and animal productivity and health. Animal performance, dry matter and water intake are all negatively impacted by high-salt water. The effects of high-sulfate water are more detrimental to animals than those of high-chloride water. The results of Castro et al. (2017), who found that different salt levels in water (ranging from 640 to 8326 mg tds/l) had no effect on lamb slaughter weight, cold carcass weight, or hot carcass weight, further validated these findings. These conclusions were challenged by Zayed’s (2022) research finding, which showed that drinking water with different salinities positively impacted the carcass characteristics and edible non-carcass parts of barki lambs. This implies that lowering the amount of salt in drinking water could improve the characteristics of lamb carcasses. However, research by (Ahmed et al., 2015; Pearce et al. (2010). indicated that although saltbush (Atriplex) feeding decreased the dressing % in barki lambs, it had no discernible influence on the animals’ slaughter or carcass weight. It should be mentioned that nothing is now known about how the salinity of drinking water influences the properties of sheep or goat carcasses, particularly in arid environments.
     
    Average daily gain
     
    Additionally, Patterson et al. (2003) found that when water TDS increased from 1,019 to 4,835 ppm, the average daily gain in growing steers decreased by 27%. In a similar vein, Patterson et al., (2004) found that steers given saline water with 7,268 ppm TDS had a 65% (P<0.05) lower daily growth than steers given 1,226 ppm TDS. Furthermore, Sharma et al., (2017) demonstrated that Murrah buffalo calves given water containing 8789 mg TDS/l experienced a 19.3% decline in average daily growth as compared to the group that received water containing 557 mg TDS/l. However, several research found that saline water had no effect on body weight increase. For instance, Yousfi et al., (2016) discovered that providing water containing 7 g NaCl/l had no effect on the average daily gain in Barbarine lamb. Comparable outcomes were observed in rabbits (Ahmed and Abdel-Rahman, 2004), heifers (Alves et al., 2017) and beef cattle (López et al., 2016).
     
    Water quality and its impact on dairy cattle performance
     
    Water constitutes a substantial proportion of bovine body composition, representing between 56% and 81% of total body weight in dairy cows. The quality of water provided to livestock represents a critical factor influencing consumption patterns and presents considerable challenges for both beef and dairy production systems (Singh et al., 2022). Water quality can be significantly compromised by the presence of dissolved salts and various hazardous substances, including biological pathogens and chemical contaminants that adversely affect its suitability for animal consumption. Groundwater sources are generally considered superior to surface water for livestock consumption due to reduced contamination risks. The relationship between water quality and animal performance extends beyond simple consumption, as water quality directly influences both milk production efficiency and milk composition through the bioaccumulation of dissolved substances in mammary tissues and other body systems (Giri et al., 2020). Suboptimal water quality or restricted access to adequate water supplies can result in decreased milk yield, impaired animal growth and the development of various health disorders in dairy cattle (ILRI, 2015). Several primary water quality concerns significantly impact livestock production systems. These include elevated mineral concentrations resulting in excessive salinity levels, high nitrogen compound concentrations (particularly nitrates and nitrites), bacterial contamination, proliferation of blue-green algae and inadvertent contamination from petroleum products, agricultural pesticides, or fertilizer compounds (Dyer et al., 2017). Numerous factors, such as species traits, breed genetics, animal age, nutritional state, physiological condition and current environmental conditions, influence the physiological reaction to consuming saline water (Runa et al., 2019). Notwithstanding these variances, livestock animals exhibit varied levels of tolerance to drinking water salinity, with thresholds for several animal groups recorded (Table 1 and 2).

    Table 1: Impacts of salty drinking water on different kinds of animals.



    Table 2: Total soluble salts for beef cattle in water.


           
    Optimizing livestock production systems and upholding animal welfare standards need an understanding of these tolerance thresholds as well as the intricate relationships between water quality indicators and animal performance. To guarantee sustainable and successful dairy operations, these complex relationships must be taken into account while developing comprehensive water quality management programs.
     
    Water requirements and quality management in cattle production systems
     
    Adequate water, both in terms of quantity and quality, is essential for the successful production of cattle. In order to support cattle productivity and welfare, it is crucial to maintain the proper amount and quality of water (Masters et al., 2007). This is especially important in areas with high temperatures and limited precipitation since factors like pollution and water salinity have a big influence on water quality. In addition to harming animals’ health, pollutants such pesticides, heavy metals, organic waste and blue-green algae can also reduce an animal’s productivity (Smith, 2021). If the right to provide enough water for cattle is upheld, there could be major consequences for animal welfare. Although tolerance varies by animal species as well as type, the animals with the lowest tolerance levels for water contaminants are sheep, cattle, horses, pigs and poultry (Australian and New Zealand Governments (2023). According to Lefebvre et al., (2008), renal function may be linked to animals’ exceptional tolerance for different salt concentrations in their drinking water. The balance and content of physiological fluids are largely controlled by the kidneys and research has demonstrated that sheep given 1.3% Nacl water can develop a salt tolerance without suffering any negative effects. McGregor (2004) asserts that the kidneys’ special adaptations, particularly filtration and salt removal, enable this adjustment. Breeds of ruminants that thrive in arid climates have evolved a number of adaptations to cope with the challenges posed by drought and heat.
           
    Understanding these physiological mechanisms and species-specific tolerance levels is crucial for developing effective water management strategies in cattle production systems, particularly in regions where water quality compromised due to environmental constraints or anthropogenic contamination sources (Fig 2, Table 3 and 4).

    Fig 2: Various animal species’ tolerance for drinking saline water (Adapted from Golher et al., 2021).



    Table 3: Guidelines for the use of saline water in dairy livestock.



    Table 4: Productivity impacts of water quality degradation on livestock.


     
    Salt requirements and toxicity management in livestock production
     
    Macronutrients represent essential dietary components required in substantial quantities throughout an animal’s lifespan to support various physiological processes, growth and developmental functions. Among these nutrients, salt serves as a critical element in blood composition, constituting approximately 0.17% of blood content in the form of sodium and chloride ions and plays a fundamental role in animal growth, production efficiency and reproductive performance (Lata and Mondal, 2021). Mineral supplementation requires careful regulation and consistent provision to livestock systems. Mineral requirements vary significantly based on animal species, breed characteristics, dietary composition, geographical location and production objectives (Johansson, 2008). The sodium content of drinking water represents a crucial factor in determining dietary sodium requirements and overall nutritional balance. Total dissolved salt content in water sources directly influences the mineral load available to animals and must be considered in feed formulation strategies.
           
    Salt toxicity typically occurs under specific conditions, including excessive dietary salt concentrations or inadequate water availability. Animals can develop physiological tolerance to elevated salt levels when adaptation occurs gradually and adequate fresh water remains accessible (FAO, 2018). However, insufficient water intake or water deprivation impairs renal salt excretion mechanisms, resulting in sodium accumulation within the central nervous system (CNS). Salt poisoning manifests through two primary mechanisms: direct toxicity from excessive absorption or indirect toxicity resulting from dehydration-induced concentration effects. Clinical manifestations of severe salt poisoning in livestock encompass both gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms, including diarrhea, depression, visual impairment, aggressive behaviour, hyperexcitability, ataxia, head pressing, polydipsia and repetitive oral movements. Progressive symptoms may include seizure activity, coma and potentially fatal outcomes (Ben Meir et al., 2023).
                   
    The negative effects of salty drinking water on cattle can be evaluated and countered in a number of ways by small-scale farmers with limited resources (Table 5). These tactics include evaluating the quality of water sources and keeping a close eye on and observing their animals. To further address this issue, selectively breeding for resilience, regulating water sources, offering dietary supplements and working with other farmers through knowledge exchange can all be extremely important. These techniques can help farmers make better decisions and mitigate the negative impacts of saline water on their animals, even though they might not totally eliminate these issues (Ogunyiola et al., 2022).

    Table 5: Effect of saline water on animal production.

    CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

    Although fresh, clean water is essential for enhancing animal health, performance and productivity, the current, severe and rapid climate change is negatively impacting drinking water quality globally. Salinity is one of the most important factors in water quality, especially in regions that are prone to drought. Overconsumption of salt over time can disrupt feed and water intake and potentially cause serious health issues, even though salt is necessary for controlling body water content, muscle and nerve function and nutrient absorption. Regional, national and international research on water quality affecting farm animal productivity provides scientific evidence for addressing water scarcity and food security challenges. Despite ongoing uncertainty in climate projections, global and regional climate models, downscaling methodologies and impact assessment tools continue advancing to better address these uncertainties. Future research priorities should focus on comprehensive climate change assessment, including impact evaluation, response mechanisms and adaptation strategies for integrated water and livestock management systems. Given the increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events, improved forecasting of these occurrences and their consequences remains critical for sustainable livestock production.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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