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Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

  • Submitted17-06-2026|

  • Accepted16-08-2026|

  • First Online 14-09-2026|

  • doi 10.18805/BKAP945

ABSTRACT

Background: Agronomic management practices, particularly sowing time, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen application, have a significant impact on wheat productivity and profitability. The present study was conducted to investigate the combined effects of these factors on the growth, yield and economic performance of wheat.

Methods: Field investigations were undertaken during the rabi season of 2020-21 at the Crop Research Farm, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The trial was arranged in a split-plot design with three replications involving two sowing dates (20 November and 20 December), three irrigation regimes and three nitrogen doses (80, 120 and 160 kg N ha-1).

Result: Earlier sowing on 20 November resulted in better crop growth and higher productivity than sowing on 20 December. Irrigation supplied at CRI, tillering, booting and milking stages (I3) achieved the highest grain production (3.36 t ha-1). Similarly, application of 160 kg N ha-1 (N3) produced the greatest grain yield (3.41 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.96 t ha-1). The treatment combination D1I3N3 generated the maximum net income (₹ 47,777 ha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (2.19). Overall, appropriate sowing time, sufficient irrigation and higher nitrogen availability contributed to enhanced crop performance and economic returns.

INTRODUCTION

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ranks next to rice among India’s food grains and is central to national food and nutritional security (Government of India, 2024). Within the rice-wheat system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, however, declining resource-use efficiency and imbalanced input management have raised concerns about long-term sustainability, making optimal sowing time, irrigation scheduling and balanced nutrition essential to maintaining productivity (Gupta et al., 2003).
       
Sowing time strongly influences wheat growth: timely planting exploits favourable temperatures through the vegetative and reproductive phases, whereas late sowing brings terminal heat stress that shortens grain filling and depresses yield (Farooq et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2017), a pattern also reported elsewhere in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (Yusuf et al., 2019). Water availability at critical stages-crown root initiation, tillering, booting, grain filling-similarly governs nutrient uptake and assimilate movement, so deficit restricts productivity (Rekaby et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2010). Nitrogen drives tillering, canopy expansion and biomass accumulation; deficiency limits yield while excess reduces nutrient-use efficiency, so an optimum dose is essential for profitable cultivation (Prasad and Hobbs, 2018). Combined irrigation-nitrogen management improves productivity and nutrient-use efficiency in late-sown wheat (Kumar et al., 2018), integrating nitrogen with other fertility inputs enhances growth under diverse conditions (Devi et al., 2026) and coordinated water-nitrogen management broadly improves resource-use efficiency and economic viability (Wan et al., 2022; Fischer, 2011).
       
While the individual contributions of sowing date, irrigation and nitrogen nutrition to wheat productivity are well documented, information on their combined and interactive effects under the agro-climatic conditions of Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh remains inadequate. The present investigation was therefore undertaken to evaluate the influence of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen application, individually and in interaction, on the growth, yield and economics of wheat.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental site
 
An experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2020-21 at the Crop Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India (25°57′N, 81°19′E, 98 m amsl). Prayagraj has a subtropical, semi-arid climate with hot dry summers and cool dry winters and an average annual rainfall of about 934 mm, mostly during the monsoon (June-September).
 
Weather conditions during the crop growing period
 
Weekly meteorological data recorded during the crop growing period (rabi 2020-21) at the Agro-Meteorological Observatory, College of Forestry, SHUATS, Prayagraj, are presented in Table 1. The crop received a total rainfall of only 18.60 mm (against the district’s long-period average of 934 mm annum-1), confined mainly to the 50th standard meteorological week (18.40 mm, 10-16 December), with the remaining weeks practically rain-free-confirming that differences among the irrigation treatments (I1, I2 and I3) reflect the imposed schedules rather than rainfall.

Table 1: Weekly meteorological data (Maximum/minimum temperature, relative humidity and rainfall) recorded during the crop growing period (rabi 2020-21) at the agro-meteorological observatory, College of Forestry, SHUATS, Prayagraj.


 
Soil characteristics
 
Pre-sowing soil samples were sandy loam in texture (58.75% sand, 25.15% silt, 16.45% clay), slightly alkaline (pH 7.7) with low soluble salts (EC 0.41 dS m-1), low in organic carbon (0.39%) and available nitrogen (178.53 kg ha-1) and moderate in available phosphorus (20.36 kg ha-1) and potassium (229.42 kg ha-1).
 
Experimental design and treatments
 
The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three replications: two sowing dates (D1 = 20 November, D2 = 20 December) as main plots, three irrigation schedules as sub-plots-I1 (CRI + booting), I2  (CRI + tillering + booting) and I3 (CRI + tillering + booting + milking)-and three nitrogen levels as sub-sub-plots-N1 (80), N2 (120) and N3 (160 kg N ha-1)-giving eighteen treatment combinations.
 
Crop establishment and nutrient management
 
Wheat variety HD 2967 was sown manually on 20 November and 20 December 2020 (100 kg ha-1 seed rate, 22.5 cm row spacing, 5 cm plant spacing; seed treated with Bavistin at 2 g kg-1). Gross plot size was 12.15 m2 (4.05 × 3.00 m) and net plot size 10.08 m² (3.60 × 2.80 m).
       
A uniform dose of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 40 kg K2O ha-1 was applied via DAP and MOP, while nitrogen was supplied via urea at the three treatment levels. As per the zone-wise Package of Practices published by ICAR-Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal (now ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research) for the North Eastern Plains Zone, which includes Prayagraj, the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) differs with sowing time: 150:60:40 kg N:P2O5:K2O ha-1 for timely sown and 120:60:40 kg N:P2O5 :K2O ha-1 for late sown wheat (Kumar et al., 2014). Accordingly, for D1, N3  (160 kg N ha-1) closely approximates the RDF (150 kg N ha-1), while N2 and N1 represent about 80% and 53% of it; for D2, N2 (120 kg N ha-1) exactly matches the RDF, while N1 and N3 represent about 67% and 133% of it. Nitrogen was applied in three splits-half as basal and the rest at 25 and 45 DAS.
 
Irrigation and crop management
 
Irrigation was applied at crown root initiation (21 DAS), tillering (40 DAS), booting (75 DAS) and milking (100 DAS) as per treatment schedule. Weeds were controlled with post-emergence Sulfosulfuron 75% + Metsulfuron methyl 5% WG @ 40 g ha-1 at about 30 DAS, with recommended practices otherwise uniform across treatments.
 
Observations recorded
 
Data on plant height, number of tillers per running meter, dry weight per plant and leaf area index (LAI) were collected at 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 DAS of crop growth. At maturity, effective tillers m-2, spike length, grains per spike and test weight were recorded and grain yield, straw yield, biological yield and harvest index computed by standard procedures.
 
Economic analysis and statistical analysis
 
Cost of cultivation, gross/net monetary return and benefit-cost ratio were estimated using prevailing market prices. Data were analysed by ANOVA for a split-plot design (Gomez and Gomez, 1984); means were compared by CD at P = 0.05 and the D × I, D × N, I × N and D × I × N interactions tested and discussed below.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Growth attributes
 
Growth attributes were significantly influenced by sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels at both 80 and 100 DAS (Table 2). Timely sowing (D1) recorded significantly higher plant height (73.48 cm at 80 DAS; 75.73 cm at 100 DAS), tillers per running metre (84.16; 72.19), dry weight per plant (6.209 g; 7.891 g) and LAI (3.298; 3.052) than delayed sowing (D2, 5.398 g and 6.950 g dry weight at 80 and 100 DAS, respectively), attributable to favourable temperatures and a longer crop duration (Meena et al., 2015; Hussain et al., 2021; Dar et al., 2021).

Table 2: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on growth attributes of wheat.


       
Among irrigation schedules, I3 significantly increased plant height (75.94 cm at 80 DAS; 77.24 cm at 100 DAS), tillers per running metre (84.48; 77.02) and dry weight per plant (6.289 g; 8.020 g) over I1 (66.34 cm; 67.17 cm plant height; 67.86; 63.68 tillers; 5.374 g; 6.912 g dry weight), remaining comparable to I2 for LAI (3.647/3.406 vs 3.653/3.390). Its continued superiority at 100 DAS, after the fourth milking-stage irrigation, shows that this late irrigation sustained growth into the post-anthesis period (Zhang et al., 2010; Dhaliwal et al., 2020).
       
Nitrogen significantly influenced growth at both stages, with N3 (160 kg N ha-1) recording the highest plant height (72.66 cm; 73.77 cm), tillering (80.23; 73.29), dry weight per plant (6.407 g; 8.174 g) and LAI (3.503; 3.248), followed by N2 (71.28 cm; 72.30 cm; 5.896 g; 7.477 g) and N1 (69.33 cm; 70.23 cm; 5.107 g; 6.611 g), consistent with greater chlorophyll synthesis and canopy development (Dagash et al., 2014; Waraich et al., 2007).
 
Yield attributes
 
Yield attributes were significantly affected by sowing date and irrigation, whereas nitrogen significantly influenced only test weight (Table 3). D1 produced significantly higher effective tillers m-2 (311.71), spike length (10.71 cm), grains spike-1 (40.22) and test weight (35.94 g) than D2, reflecting the shortened duration and terminal heat stress under delayed sowing (Farooq et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2017).

Table 3: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on yield attributes of wheat.


       
I3 recorded the highest effective tillers m-2 (325.67), spike length (10.97 cm), grains spike-1 (39.91) and test weight (35.95 g); the milking-stage (100 DAS) irrigation unique to I3 evidently improved assimilate translocation to developing grains (Kanwal et al., 2020; Dhaliwal et al., 2020). N3 gave the highest test weight (35.27 g); effective tillers, spike length and grains per spike did not differ significantly with nitrogen (Waraich et al., 2007).
 
Grain yield, straw yield and biological yield
 
Grain, straw and biological yield varied significantly across all three factors (Table 4). D1 recorded significantly higher grain yield (3.08 t ha-1), straw yield (4.11 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.19 t ha-1) than D2, consistent with reduced grain development under the heat stress of delayed sowing (Hussain et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2017).

Table 4: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on the yield of wheat.


       
I3  gave the highest grain yield (3.36 t ha-1), straw yield (4.38 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.73 t ha-1). Adequate moisture throughout critical stages enhanced nutrient uptake, photosynthetic efficiency and assimilate translocation, raising grain production; since only 18.60 mm of rainfall fell over the whole crop period (Table 1), this advantage over I1 and I2 can be attributed almost entirely to scheduled irrigation, underlining the value of the 100-DAS milking-stage irrigation for grain filling under these near rain-free conditions (Zhang et al., 2010; Rekaby et al., 2019).
       
N3 gave the highest grain yield (3.41 t ha-1), straw yield (4.55 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.96 t ha-1)-about 15% and 38% higher grain yield than N2 (2.97 t ha-1) and N1 (2.47 t ha-1), respectively. Enhanced nitrogen availability promoted vigorous vegetative growth, greater leaf area development and improved photosynthetic activity, raising biomass accumulation and grain production; this tracks the zone’s sowing-date-specific RDF (150 kg N ha-1 for D1, 120 kg N ha-1 for D2), as N3 approximates or exceeds the RDF under both dates and gave the best yield, while N1 remained well below it and gave the lowest, consistent with Prasad and Hobbs (2018); Mehrabi and Sepaskhah (2018) and Kumar et al., (2018).
 
Harvest index
 
Harvest index was not significantly affected by sowing date, irrigation or nitrogen, indicating a stable partitioning of assimilates between grain and biomass across treatments.
 
Interaction effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels
 
The D × I, D × N, I × N and D × I × N interactions were each tested separately for grain yield, reflecting the different error terms of the split-plot design. None attained significance [SE(d±), CD (P = 0.05): D × I = 0.19, NS; D × N = 0.17, NS; I × N = 0.21, NS; D × I × N = 0.44, NS]. Nevertheless, the treatment-wise means (Table 5a-5d) showed a consistent pattern: D × I and D × N both peaked at I3/N3 under both sowing dates, with a marginally larger gain under D1; I × N showed the clearest trend, with the N1→N3 gain growing larger at higher irrigation (I1: +0.52; I2: +1.10; I3: +1.20 t ha-1) and D1I3N3 gave the highest yield overall (4.03 t ha-1) against the lowest at D2I1N1 (1.80 t ha-1), a mild positive tendency for irrigation and nitrogen to reinforce one another despite the lack of significance.

Table 5 (a-d): Grain yield (t ha-1) as affected by the D×I, D×N, I×N and D×I×N interactions.


       
A broadly similar, economically more visible pattern held for economic parameters (Table 6): D1I3N3  gave the highest gross and net monetary returns, exceeding the sum of the independent gains of D1, I3 and N3-a positive economic interaction despite the non-significant yield interaction-mirroring interactive irrigation-nitrogen responses reported for wheat (Kumar et al., 2018; Mehrabi and Sepaskhah, 2018) and a related cereal, barley (Al-Menaie et al., 2024), examined further below.

Table 6: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on the economics of wheat.


 
Economics
 
Economics was markedly influenced by treatment combination (Table 6). D1I3N3 (timely sowing + four irrigations + 160 kg N ha-1) recorded the highest gross monetary return (₹ 88,007 ha-1), net monetary return (₹ 47,777 ha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (2.19), followed by D1I2N3 (three irrigations at CRI, tillering and booting + 160 kg N ha-1) with the second-highest B:C ratio (2.12) and net return of ₹ 43,759 ha-1-91.6% and 96.8% of the top treatment’s net return and B:C ratio, despite one fewer irrigation. The fourth, milking-stage irrigation added only ₹ 1,127 ha-1 to cost but ₹ 4,018 ha-1 to net return, remaining justified; yet the closeness of the ratios reflects diminishing marginal returns once nitrogen is non-limiting (N3), with most of the four-irrigation schedule’s profitability already captured with three. D1I3N3 thus offers the highest overall profitability, while D1I2N3 is a practical, nearly-as-profitable alternative wherever water, labour or energy for a fourth irrigation is constrained-a common situation under declining groundwater availability in this zone-consistent with the resource-use efficiency gains from timely sowing and adequate irrigation-nitrogen management (Kanwal et al., 2020; Bashir et al., 2017; Wan et al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

Sowing dates, irrigation schedules and nitrogen levels significantly affected wheat growth, yield and profitability, with effects largely additive under the near rain-free conditions (18.60 mm total) of 2020-21. Timely sowing with irrigation at CRI, tillering, booting and milking stages and 160 kg N ha-1 (close to the zone’s 150 kg N ha-1 RDF) gave the best returns; D1I3N3 is recommended for the Vindhyan zone, with D1I2N3 as a nearly equivalent, less water-intensive alternative under water constraints.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to the Department of Agronomy, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHUATS), Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India, for providing the necessary facilities and support for conducting the present research.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHUATS), Prayagraj. The authors are solely responsible for the accuracy and integrity of the data and information presented in this manuscript.
 
Informed consent
 
Not applicable. This study did not involve human participants, animals, or any procedures requiring ethical approval or informed consent.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. The research was conducted independently and no external funding agency had any role in the design of the study, data collection, analysis, interpretation of results, manuscript preparation, or decision to publish.

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    • Submitted17-06-2026|

    • Accepted16-08-2026|

    • First Online 14-09-2026|

    • doi 10.18805/BKAP945

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Agronomic management practices, particularly sowing time, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen application, have a significant impact on wheat productivity and profitability. The present study was conducted to investigate the combined effects of these factors on the growth, yield and economic performance of wheat.

    Methods: Field investigations were undertaken during the rabi season of 2020-21 at the Crop Research Farm, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The trial was arranged in a split-plot design with three replications involving two sowing dates (20 November and 20 December), three irrigation regimes and three nitrogen doses (80, 120 and 160 kg N ha-1).

    Result: Earlier sowing on 20 November resulted in better crop growth and higher productivity than sowing on 20 December. Irrigation supplied at CRI, tillering, booting and milking stages (I3) achieved the highest grain production (3.36 t ha-1). Similarly, application of 160 kg N ha-1 (N3) produced the greatest grain yield (3.41 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.96 t ha-1). The treatment combination D1I3N3 generated the maximum net income (₹ 47,777 ha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (2.19). Overall, appropriate sowing time, sufficient irrigation and higher nitrogen availability contributed to enhanced crop performance and economic returns.

    INTRODUCTION

    Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ranks next to rice among India’s food grains and is central to national food and nutritional security (Government of India, 2024). Within the rice-wheat system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, however, declining resource-use efficiency and imbalanced input management have raised concerns about long-term sustainability, making optimal sowing time, irrigation scheduling and balanced nutrition essential to maintaining productivity (Gupta et al., 2003).
           
    Sowing time strongly influences wheat growth: timely planting exploits favourable temperatures through the vegetative and reproductive phases, whereas late sowing brings terminal heat stress that shortens grain filling and depresses yield (Farooq et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2017), a pattern also reported elsewhere in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (Yusuf et al., 2019). Water availability at critical stages-crown root initiation, tillering, booting, grain filling-similarly governs nutrient uptake and assimilate movement, so deficit restricts productivity (Rekaby et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2010). Nitrogen drives tillering, canopy expansion and biomass accumulation; deficiency limits yield while excess reduces nutrient-use efficiency, so an optimum dose is essential for profitable cultivation (Prasad and Hobbs, 2018). Combined irrigation-nitrogen management improves productivity and nutrient-use efficiency in late-sown wheat (Kumar et al., 2018), integrating nitrogen with other fertility inputs enhances growth under diverse conditions (Devi et al., 2026) and coordinated water-nitrogen management broadly improves resource-use efficiency and economic viability (Wan et al., 2022; Fischer, 2011).
           
    While the individual contributions of sowing date, irrigation and nitrogen nutrition to wheat productivity are well documented, information on their combined and interactive effects under the agro-climatic conditions of Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh remains inadequate. The present investigation was therefore undertaken to evaluate the influence of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen application, individually and in interaction, on the growth, yield and economics of wheat.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Experimental site
     
    An experiment was conducted during the rabi season of 2020-21 at the Crop Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, SHUATS, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India (25°57′N, 81°19′E, 98 m amsl). Prayagraj has a subtropical, semi-arid climate with hot dry summers and cool dry winters and an average annual rainfall of about 934 mm, mostly during the monsoon (June-September).
     
    Weather conditions during the crop growing period
     
    Weekly meteorological data recorded during the crop growing period (rabi 2020-21) at the Agro-Meteorological Observatory, College of Forestry, SHUATS, Prayagraj, are presented in Table 1. The crop received a total rainfall of only 18.60 mm (against the district’s long-period average of 934 mm annum-1), confined mainly to the 50th standard meteorological week (18.40 mm, 10-16 December), with the remaining weeks practically rain-free-confirming that differences among the irrigation treatments (I1, I2 and I3) reflect the imposed schedules rather than rainfall.

    Table 1: Weekly meteorological data (Maximum/minimum temperature, relative humidity and rainfall) recorded during the crop growing period (rabi 2020-21) at the agro-meteorological observatory, College of Forestry, SHUATS, Prayagraj.


     
    Soil characteristics
     
    Pre-sowing soil samples were sandy loam in texture (58.75% sand, 25.15% silt, 16.45% clay), slightly alkaline (pH 7.7) with low soluble salts (EC 0.41 dS m-1), low in organic carbon (0.39%) and available nitrogen (178.53 kg ha-1) and moderate in available phosphorus (20.36 kg ha-1) and potassium (229.42 kg ha-1).
     
    Experimental design and treatments
     
    The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with three replications: two sowing dates (D1 = 20 November, D2 = 20 December) as main plots, three irrigation schedules as sub-plots-I1 (CRI + booting), I2  (CRI + tillering + booting) and I3 (CRI + tillering + booting + milking)-and three nitrogen levels as sub-sub-plots-N1 (80), N2 (120) and N3 (160 kg N ha-1)-giving eighteen treatment combinations.
     
    Crop establishment and nutrient management
     
    Wheat variety HD 2967 was sown manually on 20 November and 20 December 2020 (100 kg ha-1 seed rate, 22.5 cm row spacing, 5 cm plant spacing; seed treated with Bavistin at 2 g kg-1). Gross plot size was 12.15 m2 (4.05 × 3.00 m) and net plot size 10.08 m² (3.60 × 2.80 m).
           
    A uniform dose of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 40 kg K2O ha-1 was applied via DAP and MOP, while nitrogen was supplied via urea at the three treatment levels. As per the zone-wise Package of Practices published by ICAR-Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal (now ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research) for the North Eastern Plains Zone, which includes Prayagraj, the recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) differs with sowing time: 150:60:40 kg N:P2O5:K2O ha-1 for timely sown and 120:60:40 kg N:P2O5 :K2O ha-1 for late sown wheat (Kumar et al., 2014). Accordingly, for D1, N3  (160 kg N ha-1) closely approximates the RDF (150 kg N ha-1), while N2 and N1 represent about 80% and 53% of it; for D2, N2 (120 kg N ha-1) exactly matches the RDF, while N1 and N3 represent about 67% and 133% of it. Nitrogen was applied in three splits-half as basal and the rest at 25 and 45 DAS.
     
    Irrigation and crop management
     
    Irrigation was applied at crown root initiation (21 DAS), tillering (40 DAS), booting (75 DAS) and milking (100 DAS) as per treatment schedule. Weeds were controlled with post-emergence Sulfosulfuron 75% + Metsulfuron methyl 5% WG @ 40 g ha-1 at about 30 DAS, with recommended practices otherwise uniform across treatments.
     
    Observations recorded
     
    Data on plant height, number of tillers per running meter, dry weight per plant and leaf area index (LAI) were collected at 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 DAS of crop growth. At maturity, effective tillers m-2, spike length, grains per spike and test weight were recorded and grain yield, straw yield, biological yield and harvest index computed by standard procedures.
     
    Economic analysis and statistical analysis
     
    Cost of cultivation, gross/net monetary return and benefit-cost ratio were estimated using prevailing market prices. Data were analysed by ANOVA for a split-plot design (Gomez and Gomez, 1984); means were compared by CD at P = 0.05 and the D × I, D × N, I × N and D × I × N interactions tested and discussed below.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Growth attributes
     
    Growth attributes were significantly influenced by sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels at both 80 and 100 DAS (Table 2). Timely sowing (D1) recorded significantly higher plant height (73.48 cm at 80 DAS; 75.73 cm at 100 DAS), tillers per running metre (84.16; 72.19), dry weight per plant (6.209 g; 7.891 g) and LAI (3.298; 3.052) than delayed sowing (D2, 5.398 g and 6.950 g dry weight at 80 and 100 DAS, respectively), attributable to favourable temperatures and a longer crop duration (Meena et al., 2015; Hussain et al., 2021; Dar et al., 2021).

    Table 2: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on growth attributes of wheat.


           
    Among irrigation schedules, I3 significantly increased plant height (75.94 cm at 80 DAS; 77.24 cm at 100 DAS), tillers per running metre (84.48; 77.02) and dry weight per plant (6.289 g; 8.020 g) over I1 (66.34 cm; 67.17 cm plant height; 67.86; 63.68 tillers; 5.374 g; 6.912 g dry weight), remaining comparable to I2 for LAI (3.647/3.406 vs 3.653/3.390). Its continued superiority at 100 DAS, after the fourth milking-stage irrigation, shows that this late irrigation sustained growth into the post-anthesis period (Zhang et al., 2010; Dhaliwal et al., 2020).
           
    Nitrogen significantly influenced growth at both stages, with N3 (160 kg N ha-1) recording the highest plant height (72.66 cm; 73.77 cm), tillering (80.23; 73.29), dry weight per plant (6.407 g; 8.174 g) and LAI (3.503; 3.248), followed by N2 (71.28 cm; 72.30 cm; 5.896 g; 7.477 g) and N1 (69.33 cm; 70.23 cm; 5.107 g; 6.611 g), consistent with greater chlorophyll synthesis and canopy development (Dagash et al., 2014; Waraich et al., 2007).
     
    Yield attributes
     
    Yield attributes were significantly affected by sowing date and irrigation, whereas nitrogen significantly influenced only test weight (Table 3). D1 produced significantly higher effective tillers m-2 (311.71), spike length (10.71 cm), grains spike-1 (40.22) and test weight (35.94 g) than D2, reflecting the shortened duration and terminal heat stress under delayed sowing (Farooq et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2017).

    Table 3: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on yield attributes of wheat.


           
    I3 recorded the highest effective tillers m-2 (325.67), spike length (10.97 cm), grains spike-1 (39.91) and test weight (35.95 g); the milking-stage (100 DAS) irrigation unique to I3 evidently improved assimilate translocation to developing grains (Kanwal et al., 2020; Dhaliwal et al., 2020). N3 gave the highest test weight (35.27 g); effective tillers, spike length and grains per spike did not differ significantly with nitrogen (Waraich et al., 2007).
     
    Grain yield, straw yield and biological yield
     
    Grain, straw and biological yield varied significantly across all three factors (Table 4). D1 recorded significantly higher grain yield (3.08 t ha-1), straw yield (4.11 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.19 t ha-1) than D2, consistent with reduced grain development under the heat stress of delayed sowing (Hussain et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2017).

    Table 4: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on the yield of wheat.


           
    I3  gave the highest grain yield (3.36 t ha-1), straw yield (4.38 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.73 t ha-1). Adequate moisture throughout critical stages enhanced nutrient uptake, photosynthetic efficiency and assimilate translocation, raising grain production; since only 18.60 mm of rainfall fell over the whole crop period (Table 1), this advantage over I1 and I2 can be attributed almost entirely to scheduled irrigation, underlining the value of the 100-DAS milking-stage irrigation for grain filling under these near rain-free conditions (Zhang et al., 2010; Rekaby et al., 2019).
           
    N3 gave the highest grain yield (3.41 t ha-1), straw yield (4.55 t ha-1) and biological yield (7.96 t ha-1)-about 15% and 38% higher grain yield than N2 (2.97 t ha-1) and N1 (2.47 t ha-1), respectively. Enhanced nitrogen availability promoted vigorous vegetative growth, greater leaf area development and improved photosynthetic activity, raising biomass accumulation and grain production; this tracks the zone’s sowing-date-specific RDF (150 kg N ha-1 for D1, 120 kg N ha-1 for D2), as N3 approximates or exceeds the RDF under both dates and gave the best yield, while N1 remained well below it and gave the lowest, consistent with Prasad and Hobbs (2018); Mehrabi and Sepaskhah (2018) and Kumar et al., (2018).
     
    Harvest index
     
    Harvest index was not significantly affected by sowing date, irrigation or nitrogen, indicating a stable partitioning of assimilates between grain and biomass across treatments.
     
    Interaction effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels
     
    The D × I, D × N, I × N and D × I × N interactions were each tested separately for grain yield, reflecting the different error terms of the split-plot design. None attained significance [SE(d±), CD (P = 0.05): D × I = 0.19, NS; D × N = 0.17, NS; I × N = 0.21, NS; D × I × N = 0.44, NS]. Nevertheless, the treatment-wise means (Table 5a-5d) showed a consistent pattern: D × I and D × N both peaked at I3/N3 under both sowing dates, with a marginally larger gain under D1; I × N showed the clearest trend, with the N1→N3 gain growing larger at higher irrigation (I1: +0.52; I2: +1.10; I3: +1.20 t ha-1) and D1I3N3 gave the highest yield overall (4.03 t ha-1) against the lowest at D2I1N1 (1.80 t ha-1), a mild positive tendency for irrigation and nitrogen to reinforce one another despite the lack of significance.

    Table 5 (a-d): Grain yield (t ha-1) as affected by the D×I, D×N, I×N and D×I×N interactions.


           
    A broadly similar, economically more visible pattern held for economic parameters (Table 6): D1I3N3  gave the highest gross and net monetary returns, exceeding the sum of the independent gains of D1, I3 and N3-a positive economic interaction despite the non-significant yield interaction-mirroring interactive irrigation-nitrogen responses reported for wheat (Kumar et al., 2018; Mehrabi and Sepaskhah, 2018) and a related cereal, barley (Al-Menaie et al., 2024), examined further below.

    Table 6: Effect of sowing dates, irrigation scheduling and nitrogen levels on the economics of wheat.


     
    Economics
     
    Economics was markedly influenced by treatment combination (Table 6). D1I3N3 (timely sowing + four irrigations + 160 kg N ha-1) recorded the highest gross monetary return (₹ 88,007 ha-1), net monetary return (₹ 47,777 ha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (2.19), followed by D1I2N3 (three irrigations at CRI, tillering and booting + 160 kg N ha-1) with the second-highest B:C ratio (2.12) and net return of ₹ 43,759 ha-1-91.6% and 96.8% of the top treatment’s net return and B:C ratio, despite one fewer irrigation. The fourth, milking-stage irrigation added only ₹ 1,127 ha-1 to cost but ₹ 4,018 ha-1 to net return, remaining justified; yet the closeness of the ratios reflects diminishing marginal returns once nitrogen is non-limiting (N3), with most of the four-irrigation schedule’s profitability already captured with three. D1I3N3 thus offers the highest overall profitability, while D1I2N3 is a practical, nearly-as-profitable alternative wherever water, labour or energy for a fourth irrigation is constrained-a common situation under declining groundwater availability in this zone-consistent with the resource-use efficiency gains from timely sowing and adequate irrigation-nitrogen management (Kanwal et al., 2020; Bashir et al., 2017; Wan et al., 2022).

    CONCLUSION

    Sowing dates, irrigation schedules and nitrogen levels significantly affected wheat growth, yield and profitability, with effects largely additive under the near rain-free conditions (18.60 mm total) of 2020-21. Timely sowing with irrigation at CRI, tillering, booting and milking stages and 160 kg N ha-1 (close to the zone’s 150 kg N ha-1 RDF) gave the best returns; D1I3N3 is recommended for the Vindhyan zone, with D1I2N3 as a nearly equivalent, less water-intensive alternative under water constraints.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors are grateful to the Department of Agronomy, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHUATS), Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India, for providing the necessary facilities and support for conducting the present research.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences (SHUATS), Prayagraj. The authors are solely responsible for the accuracy and integrity of the data and information presented in this manuscript.
     
    Informed consent
     
    Not applicable. This study did not involve human participants, animals, or any procedures requiring ethical approval or informed consent.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript. The research was conducted independently and no external funding agency had any role in the design of the study, data collection, analysis, interpretation of results, manuscript preparation, or decision to publish.

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