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Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Synergistic Approaches of Nanofertilizers and Soil Amendments on the Productivity of Rice and Some Soil Parameters to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals in Bangladesh: A Review

I
Ishrat Alam1
K
Khalid Syfullah2,*
B
Bijoya Saha3
T
Tasnia Ferdous4
M
Mst.Tanziatul Husna5
S
Samia Lutfa Hasan3
M
Madhuri Rani Roy6
1Department of Soil Science, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh.
2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
3Soil Science Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
4Agronomy Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
5Rice Farming System Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
6Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Manik Mia Aveneue, Dhaka-1207.

ABSTRACT

Rice-based agroecosystems in Bangladesh face mounting challenges from nutrient imbalance, declining soil organic matter, climate-related stress and inefficient fertilizer management. While intensive fertilizer use has raised productivity, it has also reduced nutrient use efficiency and degraded soil quality. Nanofertilizers and organic soil amendments have emerged as complementary strategies to improve nutrient management and soil health in rice systems. This review synthesizes 85 peer-reviewed field, pot and laboratory studies (2005-2025) from Bangladesh and comparable South Asian agroecosystems, evaluating the individual and combined effects of nanofertilizers and soil amendments (biochar, compost, green manure, lime) on rice productivity, soil properties, nutrient dynamics and environmental outcomes. Nanofertilizers improve nutrient use efficiency through controlled release, while amendments enhance soil organic carbon, microbial activity and nutrient retention. Combined application produces synergistic gains, with yield improvements of approximately 25-40% reported under specific experimental conditions. These integrated strategies reduce nutrient losses, strengthen soil function and support more efficient, climate-resilient rice production aligned with SDGs 2, 6, 13 and 15. Most available evidence, however, derives from short-term field and pot trials; long-term, multi-location studies are needed to evaluate nanoparticle fate, environmental safety, economic feasibility and farmer adoption under diverse rice-growing conditions before large-scale deployment.

INTRODUCTION

Globally, rice (Oryza sativa) is the third most important cereal grain (Rahman et al., 2025) and the staple food for more than half the world’s population (Khush, 2005). Global production currently stands at 541.51 million tons (MT), led by India (150.00 MT), China (145.28 MT), Bangladesh (36.60 MT), Indonesia (34.60 MT), Vietnam (26.95 MT) and Thailand (20.55 MT) (USDA, 2025).
       
In Bangladesh, rice occupies nearly 78% of net cropped area and underpins the livelihoods of millions of farmers across three growing seasons-Aus, Aman and Boro. National output has grown from roughly 11 MT in 1971-72 to about 27.8 MT (milled) in 2023-24 (BBS, 2024), equivalent to an estimated 56-62 MT of unmilled paddy (BBS, 2025). Sustaining this growth, however, is increasingly constrained by intensive fertilizer use, declining soil quality, water limitations, salinity and climate variability (Singh et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2020; Dey et al., 2020; Bhattacharya et al., 2019; Adnan et al., 2020), compounded by economic uncertainty and rising production pressures (Barrett, 2021; Alexander et al., 2015).
       
Efficient nutrient management is therefore essential to sustaining productivity while protecting soil health. Nanofertilizers and soil amendments have emerged as complementary approaches for improving nutrient efficiency, regulating nutrient release and restoring soil function. Although earlier reviews have examined nanofertilizers or soil amendments in isolation, their combined effects and underlying mechanistic interactions in rice systems remain underexplored. This review addresses that gap by integrating agronomic, soil, environmental and sustainability perspectives on nano-amendment strategies for sustainable rice intensification in Bangladesh and comparable agroecologies.
       
Specifically, this review aims to (i) evaluate the limitations of conventional fertilizer management in rice systems; (ii) summarize the agronomic and soil benefits of nanofertilizers; (iii) assess the role of soil amendments in nutrient dynamics and soil quality; and (iv) examine the synergistic effects of combined nano-amendment application in supporting sustainable rice production.
 
Methodology of the review
 
This review was conducted in Sher e Bangla Agricultural University, at November, 2025-February 2026. This review synthesizes 85 peer-reviewed studies published between 2005 and 2025, comprising field experiments, greenhouse/pot trials and laboratory-based investigations on nanofertilizers, soil amendments, nutrient use efficiency, rice productivity, soil properties and environmental responses. Field trials constituted the majority of the evidence base, particularly for nano-urea and nano-nitrogen applications (Midde et al., 2022; Elshayb et al., 2022; Bhargavi and Sundari, 2023; Reddy et al., 2025), supplemented by a smaller number of pot/greenhouse and laboratory-based mechanistic studies. The volume of relevant publications rose markedly after 2020, reflecting intensifying research interest in nano-enabled nutrient management for sustainable rice production.
       
A comprehensive search was conducted across Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink and Google Scholar using combinations of “nanofertilizer,” “nano-urea,” “nano-zinc,” “soil amendment,” “biochar,” “compost,” “green manure,” “rice productivity,” “soil health,” “nutrient use efficiency,” “Bangladesh,” and “Sustainable Development Goals.”
       
Studies were included if they (i) focused on rice or rice-based systems, (ii) examined nanofertilizers and/or soil amendments, (iii) reported yield, soil, nutrient, or environmental outcomes and (iv) were peer-reviewed and published in English between 2005 and 2025. Studies lacking quantitative or mechanistic insight, or addressing non-agricultural nanotechnology applications, were excluded.
       
Extracted data covered crop yield response, soil physicochemical parameters (SOC, pH, EC, CEC), biological indicators (microbial biomass, enzyme activity) and nutrient use efficiency, synthesized thematically to identify consistent patterns and synergistic mechanisms between nanofertilizers and soil amendments.
 
Rice production in Bangladesh: Status and constraints
 
Despite producing an estimated 56-62 MT of paddy annually (BBS, 2025) equivalent to the roughly 27.8 MT of milled rice reported for 2023-24 (BBS, 2024)-Bangladesh’s average rice yield remains near 4.5 t/ha, well below the attainable 6-8 t/ha under optimal management (Bhuiyan et al., 2021). This persistent yield gap reflects structural, environmental and management constraints that limit the crop’s full genetic and agronomic potential.
       
Cultivable land continues to shrink under urbanization, infrastructure expansion and coastal salinity intrusion (Jamal et al., 2023), intensifying pressure on remaining agricultural area. At the same time, over-reliance on chemical inputs has progressively degraded soil health (Hossain, 2021), particularly in intensively cropped districts such as Mymensingh, Jessore and Rangpur, where organic matter and microbial activity continue to decline.
       
Nutrient management remains a core constraint. Fertilizer application in Bangladesh is still largely governed by blanket recommendations based on generalized soil fertility maps rather than field-specific data, often resulting in both under- and over-application of key nutrients (Rahman and Zhang, 2018). Subsidized urea is applied heavily and disproportionately, while phosphorus, potassium, sulfur and micronutrients such as zinc and boron are frequently neglected (Nadeem and Farooq, 2019) -a pattern that becomes more pronounced under continuous rice-rice or rice-wheat systems, where native nutrient reserves are steadily depleted without replenishment (Manchanda et al., 2010). Most rice soils now contain less than 1.5% organic carbon, a threshold below which nutrient retention, microbial activity and soil structure are all compromised (Siddique et al., 2023) -a decline driven by continuous cropping, residue removal and minimal use of organic amendments or green manure (Uddin et al., 2022; van Zwieten, 2018), which remain underutilized owing to labor intensity and weak organic-input markets (Pandey et al., 2023).
       
Water stress and salinity further constrain productivity, particularly in coastal districts such as Satkhira and Khulna, where rising sea levels and tidal flooding intensify soil salinization, impairing water uptake, nutrient solubility, germination and tillering-especially during the dry Boro season (Dasgupta et al., 2017). Compounding these pressures, poor synchronization between fertilizer application and crop demand-large, infrequent doses rather than split applications aligned with growth stages (Singh et al., 2021) -drives substantial nitrogen losses through volatilization and leaching, contributing to eutrophication and nitrous oxide (N‚ O) emissions (Sainju et al., 2020). As a result, nitrogen use efficiency from urea-based applications in Bangladesh often remains below 40%, representing both an economic loss to farmers and a missed opportunity to close the yield gap.
       
Decision-support tools such as the Soil Health Card and Nutrient Expert have been introduced to promote site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), but adoption remains low due to weak extension services, limited farmer training and inadequate awareness (Reddy, 2019). Collectively, these constraints highlight the need for integrated nutrient management (INM) systems that combine organic and inorganic inputs, optimize timing and placement and incorporate innovations such as nanofertilizers and soil amendments to improve input efficiency, productivity and environmental sustainability.
 
Role of nanofertilizers in improving rice productivity
 
Nanofertilizers are nutrient delivery systems engineered at the nanoscale (typically 1-100 nm) to improve nutrient use efficiency and reduce losses (Aamer, 2020). Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio and reactivity facilitate efficient nutrient interactions at the root-soil interface (Kekeli et al., 2025), enabling controlled, targeted release that improves synchronization between nutrient availability and crop demand while reducing leaching, volatilization and runoff -losses that are especially pronounced under the flooded conditions typical of rice systems (Haydar et al., 2024).
       
Key benefits include enhanced nutrient absorption, improved nutrient use efficiency and reduced fertilizer requirement. Nano-ZnO improves zinc availability, grain Zn enrichment, root development and tillering in Zn-deficient soils (Chaudhuri et al., 2025) nano-urea can sustain productivity with reduced nitrogen inputs; and nano-silicon enhances stress tolerance and nutrient translocation under drought and salinity.
       
Field evidence from South Asia supports partial substitution of conventional nitrogen with nano-urea. Midde et al., (2022) reported that 50% recommended nitrogen combined with 50% nano-nitrogen produced the highest grain yield (7,056 kg/ha) with improved growth attributes, while urea-chitosan nanohybrids enabled a 40% reduction in conventional urea without yield loss (Elshayb et al., 2022). Under the System of Rice Intensification, 75% recommended nitrogen with two foliar nano-urea applications outperformed other treatments in grain and straw yield (Bhargavi and Sundari, 2023). However, excessive substitution of conventional nitrogen with nano-urea has also been shown to reduce yield, nitrogen uptake and profitability relative to full recommended urea (Reddy et al., 2025).
       
Taken together, current evidence positions nanofertilizers as a complementary nutrient management strategy rather than a wholesale replacement for conventional fertilizers, with successful adoption contingent on optimized application rates, economic feasibility and long-term evaluation across diverse agroecological conditions.
 
Role of soil amendments in enhancing soil health and productivity
 
Soil amendments improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, supporting resilience, nutrient cycling and root growth under stress-prone rice-growing conditions (Ali et al., 2012). The amendments most widely used in Bangladesh include: biochar, a carbon-rich pyrolysis product that improves water retention, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and microbial habitat, particularly in coarse-textured, nutrient-poor soils (Karim et al., 2020); vermicompost/compost, which supplies stable organic matter, promotes aggregation and enhances both nutrient supply and buffering capacity; lime (CaCO3), applied to neutralize acidity in regions such as Sylhet and Mymensingh, where acid soils constrain phosphorus availability and microbial activity; and green manure (e.g., Sesbania, Dhaincha), which adds organic nitrogen, increases microbial diversity and stimulates the enzyme activity needed for nutrient mineralization.
       
These amendments collectively raise soil organic carbon, improving structure, aggregate stability and moisture retention; enhance nutrient availability and retention by reducing leaching losses of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients; stimulate beneficial microbial biomass and enzymatic activity (e.g., dehydrogenase, phosphatase), improving nutrient cycling and disease suppression; and alleviate salinity, acidity and heavy-metal constraints, extending rice cultivation into marginal environments.
       
Field evidence from salinity-affected zones such as Barisal and Khulna shows that integrated compost-biochar application increases rice yield by 20-25% relative to untreated controls, while also improving electrical conductivity management and root-zone microbial health.
 
Synergistic effects of nanofertilizers and soil amendments
 
Integrating nanofertilizers with organic and inorganic soil amendments produces synergistic effects that exceed the contribution of either input alone, improving nutrient cycling efficiency, stabilizing soil physicochemical properties, enhancing microbial functionality and increasing rice productivity (Fig 1). In Bangladesh’s intensively cultivated rice systems-characterized by low soil organic carbon, nutrient imbalance and high nitrogen losses-this synergy offers a scientifically grounded pathway toward sustainable intensification (Stojanova et al., 2025), summarized comparatively in Table 1.

Fig 1: Synergistic effects of nanofertilizers and soil amendments on rice productivity and soil health.



Table 1: Comparative impacts of nanofertilizers, soil amendments and their combined application on agronomic and soil parameters.


 
Mechanisms driving synergistic benefits
 
Four interacting processes govern the productivity gains observed under integrated nano-amendment management: soil chemical buffering, nanoparticle stabilization, microbial mediation and improved root-zone functioning.
       
Lime, compost and biochar buffer soil pH, improving micronutrient solubility and reducing fixation (Mosharrof et al., 2022) -important given the localized acidity or alkalinity that constrains micronutrient availability across many Bangladeshi rice soils (Kabir et al., 2024) and which in turn improves the dissolution and efficacy of nano-formulated Zn, Fe and B. Organic matrices from compost and biochar also regulate nanoparticle mobility, binding particles through electrostatic attraction and surface complexation and reducing rapid leaching under flooded conditions (Swaren et al., 2022), ensuring gradual, demand-synchronized nutrient release. Amendments further stimulate microbial biomass and diversity, enhancing mineralization processes that complement nano-induced root exudation and strengthen plant-microbe-nutrient interactions (Ahmed et al., 2026). Finally, nanoparticles themselves stimulate root elongation and organic acid/enzyme secretion, expanding the absorptive surface area in organic-carbon-rich amended soils and improving nutrient mobilization and uptake (Zhang et al., 2024) -together creating a biologically and chemically buffered nutrient delivery system.
 
Mechanistic basis of synergy
 
The synergistic performance of nanofertilizers and soil amendments is governed by physicochemical interactions, diffusion kinetics, microbial enzyme dynamics and greenhouse gas regulation pathways operating within the rice rhizosphere.
 
Nano-organic matter adsorption
 
Organic amendments carry abundant functional groups- carboxyl, hydroxyl, phenolic and amine-that interact with engineered nanoparticles via electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, ligand exchange and cation bridging (Irannajad et al., 2019). Biochar’s oxygen-containing functional groups and high specific surface area provide active adsorption sites that allow Zn2+ released from nano-ZnO to bind through surface complexation, forming nano-organic complexes that slow nutrient release, reduce leaching and improve synchronization with plant demand (Arabzadeh et al., 2024; Trivedi et al., 2025; Martins et al., 2020; Munzeiwa et al., 2025) -a stabilization mechanism particularly valuable in submerged paddy soils, where conventional urea otherwise loses substantial nitrogen to volatilization.
 
Nanoparticle aggregation and surface charge
 
Nanoparticle stability in flooded soils depends on ionic strength, redox conditions and dissolved organic carbon (DOC); without organic stabilizers, particles tend to aggregate via van der Waals attraction. DOC from compost and green manure provides steric stabilization and shifts zeta potential toward more negative values, enhancing electrostatic repulsion and dispersion (Yuqing et al., 2021) -improving root-nanoparticle contact, nutrient distribution uniformity and rhizosphere diffusion gradients.
 
Nutrient diffusion and nano-CEC interactions
 
The nanoscale size of fertilizer particles accelerates dissolution and diffusion; combined with amendment-driven increases in cation exchange capacity, this improves nutrient retention and buffering (Haydar et al., 2025). Under alternate wetting and drying (AWD), repeated aerobic–anaerobic cycles drive oxidation, reduction, dissolution and speciation changes that influence nanoparticle aggregation, dispersion, mobility and environmental fate (Yang et al., 2009; Cruz et al., 2021; Haydar et al., 2026). Biochar and compost supply negatively charged exchange sites that adsorb NH4+ from nano-urea and retain Zn2+/Fe2+, reducing fixation in clay-dominated soils and creating a dynamic adsorption-desorption equilibrium that improves nitrogen use efficiency and micronutrient recovery under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Cai et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2017).
 
Rhizosphere-mediated transformations
 
Nanofertilizers stimulate root elongation, organic acid exudation and enzyme secretion; when amendments are present, increased microbial biomass and diversity activate urease (nitrogen mineralization), phosphatase (phosphorus solubilization) and dehydrogenase (microbial activity), accelerating the conversion of nano-retained nutrients into plant-available forms and reinforcing the nutrient cycling loop (Pinton et al., 2007; Wankhade et al., 2025).
 
Microbial pathways and N2O mitigation
 
Nano-biochar integration reduces N2O emissions primarily by regulating microbial nitrogen transformation. Biochar improves soil aeration and microbial habitat, influencing nitrification and denitrification (Tang et al., 2022), while nano-enabled nutrient delivery limits excess mineral nitrogen accumulation that would otherwise drive N2O formation during nitrification (Tierling and Kuhlmann, 2018). Biochar amendments also modify the abundance and activity of denitrification genes-nirK, nirS and the N2O-reducing gene nosZ-enhancing conversion of N2O to N2 (Harter et al., 2016; Aamer et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2025), while enhanced microbial nitrogen immobilization further retains N within microbial biomass. Field evidence indicates nano-biochar integration can lower N2O emissions by approximately 15-35% relative to conventional fertilization (Mofijul Islam et al., 2018; Dãncilã et al., 2025), supporting climate-resilient rice production and contributing to SDG 13.
 
Alignment with sustainable development goals (SDGs)
 
The integrated use of nanofertilizers and soil amendments contributes to several sustainable development Goals in Bangladesh’s agrarian context (Fig 2; Table 2). By improving nutrient use efficiency and raising yields by 25-40%, combined application strengthens food security and rural livelihoods (SDG 2). Reduced nitrate leaching and volatilization, paired with greater nutrient retention from biochar and compost, lowers nutrient runoff and protects water quality (SDG 6). Precision nutrient delivery alongside recycling of organic waste into compost and biochar promotes resource-efficient, circular agricultural practices (SDG 12). Long-term carbon sequestration from biochar and reduced N2O emissions support climate resilience and adaptation to salinity and drought stress (SDG 13). Finally, enhanced microbial diversity and reduced land degradation from organic amendments protect soil ecosystems and long-term fertility (SDG 15).

Fig 2: Diagram summarizing SDG linkages.



Table 2: Alignment of synergistic nanofertilizer-soil amendment application with sustainable development goals.


 
Critical discussion: limitations and risk considerations
 
Although the synergistic integration of nanofertilizers and soil amendments shows considerable agronomic and environmental promise, several scientific, regulatory, ecological and socio-economic concerns must be addressed before large-scale adoption in Bangladesh’s rice systems.
       
Engineered nanoparticles exhibit high surface reactivity and mobility relative to bulk materials (Pattanayak and Siddhartha, 2024), which improves nutrient delivery but may also pose ecotoxicological risks-including oxidative stress at supra-optimal concentrations, disruption of beneficial microbial communities, inhibition of enzymatic activity in sensitive taxa and entry into aquatic ecosystems via runoff (Patil et al., 2026). Metal-based nanoparticles (e.g., ZnO, Fe2O3) may dissolve into ionic forms that alter redox balance and microbial community structure; while many studies report safe application thresholds, long-term chronic-exposure data under tropical flooded rice conditions remain limited (Thomas et al., 2025; Alizadeh et al., 2025), underscoring the need for validated dose-response relationships and safe concentration limits.
       
Regulatory frameworks for nano-enabled agricultural inputs remain underdeveloped in Bangladesh and many developing economies. Existing fertilizer regulations address bulk chemical formulations but rarely account for nanoscale properties such as particle size distribution, surface functionalization, aggregation behavior and environmental persistence; standardized national protocols for nanoparticle risk assessment, labeling and quality control are still lacking. Developing science-based guidelines covering product characterization, environmental risk assessment and post-application monitoring is critical for responsible deployment.
       
Repeated nanofertilizer application also raises concerns about nanoparticle persistence and accumulation in soil, where chemistry, redox conditions and transformation processes govern fate (Yaseen et al., 2025); under flooded paddy systems, alternating aerobic-anaerobic conditions may alter nanoparticle speciation and mobility, but long-term field studies (five years or more) remain scarce in South Asian agroecosystems (Rahman et al., 2025). ZnO- and Fe-based nanoparticles absorbed by roots can translocate to aboveground tissues, though grain accumulation is generally lower than root retention (Djanaguiraman et al., 2024); nevertheless, potential transfer into edible tissue raises food-chain exposure concerns (Rajput et al., 2020). Although current evidence suggests limited nanoparticle movement into grains, long-term bioavailability and chronic-consumption effects remain unclear (Altemimi et al., 2024) and FAO/WHO emphasize the need for residue monitoring and long-term safety evaluation before widespread adoption in food production systems (FAO and WHO, 2012).
       
Economic feasibility is a further barrier. Nano-urea typically costs more per unit than subsidized conventional urea, but its higher nutrient use efficiency (60-85% vs. 30-50% for conventional urea) (Anwar et al., 2026) and lower application requirements can partially offset that premium; field studies report improved net returns and benefit-cost ratios when nano-urea supplements rather than replaces conventional fertilization. Even so, widespread smallholder adoption is likely to be constrained by higher initial costs, limited product availability, insufficient technical knowledge and the absence of targeted subsidy mechanisms.
 
Future research priorities
 
Realizing the full potential of integrated nano–amendment strategies requires an interdisciplinary, systems-based research agenda spanning soil science, agronomy, environmental chemistry and socio-economics. Priorities include: (i) replicated, multi-season field trials (minimum five years) across Bangladesh’s salinity-prone coastal, floodplain, acidic upland and drought-prone agroecological zones, evaluating yield stability, soil carbon dynamics, nutrient recovery, greenhouse gas emissions and residual nanoparticle accumulation; (ii) nano–biochar co-formulation research, since pre-loading nanoparticles onto biochar matrices may improve controlled release, reduce aggregation, enhance carbon sequestration and increase CEC and microbial colonization; (iii) life-cycle assessment quantifying the energy consumption, carbon footprint, resource extraction impacts and end-of-life behavior of nano-enabled fertilizers relative to conventional alternatives, since field-level efficiency gains must be weighed against upstream production costs; and (iv) socio-economic adoption research integrating farm-scale cost–benefit analysis, adoption-probability modeling, risk perception, policy simulation and gender and equity considerations in technology diffusion. Bridging agronomic innovation with this socio-economic evidence base will be essential to translating experimental success into real-world impact.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Rice cultivation in Bangladesh stands at a critical juncture. Persistent nutrient imbalance, declining soil fertility, water stress and inefficient input use continue to constrain productivity, even as blanket conventional fertilizer application approaches the limits of its effectiveness and contributes to environmental degradation. Integrating nanofertilizers-which deliver nutrients efficiently at reduced application rates-with soil amendments that restore organic carbon, structure and microbial health offers a transformative, multiplicative pathway: enhancing nutrient availability, stabilizing soil function and raising rice yield by up to 40%, while advancing SDG 2 (food security), SDG 13 (climate action) and SDG 15 (sustainable land use).
       
Realizing this potential will require: (1) national fertilizer policy that incentivizes combined nanofertilizer–amendment use through demonstration plots and revised extension guidelines; (2) strengthened farmer training on safe handling, timing and benefits of these inputs; (3) location-specific nutrient recommendation systems built on tools such as the Soil Health Card and Nutrient Expert, tailored to nano-based and organic inputs; (4) support for local compost, vermicompost and biochar production from agro-waste to build circular-economy and rural employment benefits; and (5) sustained long-term field trials and policy integration to evaluate residual effects, crop-specific responses and environmental footprints across Bangladesh’s diverse agroecological zones.
       
A synergistic strategy that combines nanotechnology with organic soil management is not only agronomically promising but essential to the resilience and long-term sustainability of Bangladesh’s rice sector under mounting climate and resource pressures.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by Bangabandhu Science and Technology Fellowship Trust, Ministry of Science and Technology, BCSIR Complex, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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    Review Article

    Synergistic Approaches of Nanofertilizers and Soil Amendments on the Productivity of Rice and Some Soil Parameters to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals in Bangladesh: A Review

    I
    Ishrat Alam1
    K
    Khalid Syfullah2,*
    B
    Bijoya Saha3
    T
    Tasnia Ferdous4
    M
    Mst.Tanziatul Husna5
    S
    Samia Lutfa Hasan3
    M
    Madhuri Rani Roy6
    1Department of Soil Science, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka-1207, Bangladesh.
    2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
    3Soil Science Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
    4Agronomy Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
    5Rice Farming System Division, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh.
    6Bangladesh Jute Research Institute, Manik Mia Aveneue, Dhaka-1207.

    ABSTRACT

    Rice-based agroecosystems in Bangladesh face mounting challenges from nutrient imbalance, declining soil organic matter, climate-related stress and inefficient fertilizer management. While intensive fertilizer use has raised productivity, it has also reduced nutrient use efficiency and degraded soil quality. Nanofertilizers and organic soil amendments have emerged as complementary strategies to improve nutrient management and soil health in rice systems. This review synthesizes 85 peer-reviewed field, pot and laboratory studies (2005-2025) from Bangladesh and comparable South Asian agroecosystems, evaluating the individual and combined effects of nanofertilizers and soil amendments (biochar, compost, green manure, lime) on rice productivity, soil properties, nutrient dynamics and environmental outcomes. Nanofertilizers improve nutrient use efficiency through controlled release, while amendments enhance soil organic carbon, microbial activity and nutrient retention. Combined application produces synergistic gains, with yield improvements of approximately 25-40% reported under specific experimental conditions. These integrated strategies reduce nutrient losses, strengthen soil function and support more efficient, climate-resilient rice production aligned with SDGs 2, 6, 13 and 15. Most available evidence, however, derives from short-term field and pot trials; long-term, multi-location studies are needed to evaluate nanoparticle fate, environmental safety, economic feasibility and farmer adoption under diverse rice-growing conditions before large-scale deployment.

    INTRODUCTION

    Globally, rice (Oryza sativa) is the third most important cereal grain (Rahman et al., 2025) and the staple food for more than half the world’s population (Khush, 2005). Global production currently stands at 541.51 million tons (MT), led by India (150.00 MT), China (145.28 MT), Bangladesh (36.60 MT), Indonesia (34.60 MT), Vietnam (26.95 MT) and Thailand (20.55 MT) (USDA, 2025).
           
    In Bangladesh, rice occupies nearly 78% of net cropped area and underpins the livelihoods of millions of farmers across three growing seasons-Aus, Aman and Boro. National output has grown from roughly 11 MT in 1971-72 to about 27.8 MT (milled) in 2023-24 (BBS, 2024), equivalent to an estimated 56-62 MT of unmilled paddy (BBS, 2025). Sustaining this growth, however, is increasingly constrained by intensive fertilizer use, declining soil quality, water limitations, salinity and climate variability (Singh et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2020; Dey et al., 2020; Bhattacharya et al., 2019; Adnan et al., 2020), compounded by economic uncertainty and rising production pressures (Barrett, 2021; Alexander et al., 2015).
           
    Efficient nutrient management is therefore essential to sustaining productivity while protecting soil health. Nanofertilizers and soil amendments have emerged as complementary approaches for improving nutrient efficiency, regulating nutrient release and restoring soil function. Although earlier reviews have examined nanofertilizers or soil amendments in isolation, their combined effects and underlying mechanistic interactions in rice systems remain underexplored. This review addresses that gap by integrating agronomic, soil, environmental and sustainability perspectives on nano-amendment strategies for sustainable rice intensification in Bangladesh and comparable agroecologies.
           
    Specifically, this review aims to (i) evaluate the limitations of conventional fertilizer management in rice systems; (ii) summarize the agronomic and soil benefits of nanofertilizers; (iii) assess the role of soil amendments in nutrient dynamics and soil quality; and (iv) examine the synergistic effects of combined nano-amendment application in supporting sustainable rice production.
     
    Methodology of the review
     
    This review was conducted in Sher e Bangla Agricultural University, at November, 2025-February 2026. This review synthesizes 85 peer-reviewed studies published between 2005 and 2025, comprising field experiments, greenhouse/pot trials and laboratory-based investigations on nanofertilizers, soil amendments, nutrient use efficiency, rice productivity, soil properties and environmental responses. Field trials constituted the majority of the evidence base, particularly for nano-urea and nano-nitrogen applications (Midde et al., 2022; Elshayb et al., 2022; Bhargavi and Sundari, 2023; Reddy et al., 2025), supplemented by a smaller number of pot/greenhouse and laboratory-based mechanistic studies. The volume of relevant publications rose markedly after 2020, reflecting intensifying research interest in nano-enabled nutrient management for sustainable rice production.
           
    A comprehensive search was conducted across Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink and Google Scholar using combinations of “nanofertilizer,” “nano-urea,” “nano-zinc,” “soil amendment,” “biochar,” “compost,” “green manure,” “rice productivity,” “soil health,” “nutrient use efficiency,” “Bangladesh,” and “Sustainable Development Goals.”
           
    Studies were included if they (i) focused on rice or rice-based systems, (ii) examined nanofertilizers and/or soil amendments, (iii) reported yield, soil, nutrient, or environmental outcomes and (iv) were peer-reviewed and published in English between 2005 and 2025. Studies lacking quantitative or mechanistic insight, or addressing non-agricultural nanotechnology applications, were excluded.
           
    Extracted data covered crop yield response, soil physicochemical parameters (SOC, pH, EC, CEC), biological indicators (microbial biomass, enzyme activity) and nutrient use efficiency, synthesized thematically to identify consistent patterns and synergistic mechanisms between nanofertilizers and soil amendments.
     
    Rice production in Bangladesh: Status and constraints
     
    Despite producing an estimated 56-62 MT of paddy annually (BBS, 2025) equivalent to the roughly 27.8 MT of milled rice reported for 2023-24 (BBS, 2024)-Bangladesh’s average rice yield remains near 4.5 t/ha, well below the attainable 6-8 t/ha under optimal management (Bhuiyan et al., 2021). This persistent yield gap reflects structural, environmental and management constraints that limit the crop’s full genetic and agronomic potential.
           
    Cultivable land continues to shrink under urbanization, infrastructure expansion and coastal salinity intrusion (Jamal et al., 2023), intensifying pressure on remaining agricultural area. At the same time, over-reliance on chemical inputs has progressively degraded soil health (Hossain, 2021), particularly in intensively cropped districts such as Mymensingh, Jessore and Rangpur, where organic matter and microbial activity continue to decline.
           
    Nutrient management remains a core constraint. Fertilizer application in Bangladesh is still largely governed by blanket recommendations based on generalized soil fertility maps rather than field-specific data, often resulting in both under- and over-application of key nutrients (Rahman and Zhang, 2018). Subsidized urea is applied heavily and disproportionately, while phosphorus, potassium, sulfur and micronutrients such as zinc and boron are frequently neglected (Nadeem and Farooq, 2019) -a pattern that becomes more pronounced under continuous rice-rice or rice-wheat systems, where native nutrient reserves are steadily depleted without replenishment (Manchanda et al., 2010). Most rice soils now contain less than 1.5% organic carbon, a threshold below which nutrient retention, microbial activity and soil structure are all compromised (Siddique et al., 2023) -a decline driven by continuous cropping, residue removal and minimal use of organic amendments or green manure (Uddin et al., 2022; van Zwieten, 2018), which remain underutilized owing to labor intensity and weak organic-input markets (Pandey et al., 2023).
           
    Water stress and salinity further constrain productivity, particularly in coastal districts such as Satkhira and Khulna, where rising sea levels and tidal flooding intensify soil salinization, impairing water uptake, nutrient solubility, germination and tillering-especially during the dry Boro season (Dasgupta et al., 2017). Compounding these pressures, poor synchronization between fertilizer application and crop demand-large, infrequent doses rather than split applications aligned with growth stages (Singh et al., 2021) -drives substantial nitrogen losses through volatilization and leaching, contributing to eutrophication and nitrous oxide (N‚ O) emissions (Sainju et al., 2020). As a result, nitrogen use efficiency from urea-based applications in Bangladesh often remains below 40%, representing both an economic loss to farmers and a missed opportunity to close the yield gap.
           
    Decision-support tools such as the Soil Health Card and Nutrient Expert have been introduced to promote site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), but adoption remains low due to weak extension services, limited farmer training and inadequate awareness (Reddy, 2019). Collectively, these constraints highlight the need for integrated nutrient management (INM) systems that combine organic and inorganic inputs, optimize timing and placement and incorporate innovations such as nanofertilizers and soil amendments to improve input efficiency, productivity and environmental sustainability.
     
    Role of nanofertilizers in improving rice productivity
     
    Nanofertilizers are nutrient delivery systems engineered at the nanoscale (typically 1-100 nm) to improve nutrient use efficiency and reduce losses (Aamer, 2020). Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio and reactivity facilitate efficient nutrient interactions at the root-soil interface (Kekeli et al., 2025), enabling controlled, targeted release that improves synchronization between nutrient availability and crop demand while reducing leaching, volatilization and runoff -losses that are especially pronounced under the flooded conditions typical of rice systems (Haydar et al., 2024).
           
    Key benefits include enhanced nutrient absorption, improved nutrient use efficiency and reduced fertilizer requirement. Nano-ZnO improves zinc availability, grain Zn enrichment, root development and tillering in Zn-deficient soils (Chaudhuri et al., 2025) nano-urea can sustain productivity with reduced nitrogen inputs; and nano-silicon enhances stress tolerance and nutrient translocation under drought and salinity.
           
    Field evidence from South Asia supports partial substitution of conventional nitrogen with nano-urea. Midde et al., (2022) reported that 50% recommended nitrogen combined with 50% nano-nitrogen produced the highest grain yield (7,056 kg/ha) with improved growth attributes, while urea-chitosan nanohybrids enabled a 40% reduction in conventional urea without yield loss (Elshayb et al., 2022). Under the System of Rice Intensification, 75% recommended nitrogen with two foliar nano-urea applications outperformed other treatments in grain and straw yield (Bhargavi and Sundari, 2023). However, excessive substitution of conventional nitrogen with nano-urea has also been shown to reduce yield, nitrogen uptake and profitability relative to full recommended urea (Reddy et al., 2025).
           
    Taken together, current evidence positions nanofertilizers as a complementary nutrient management strategy rather than a wholesale replacement for conventional fertilizers, with successful adoption contingent on optimized application rates, economic feasibility and long-term evaluation across diverse agroecological conditions.
     
    Role of soil amendments in enhancing soil health and productivity
     
    Soil amendments improve the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil, supporting resilience, nutrient cycling and root growth under stress-prone rice-growing conditions (Ali et al., 2012). The amendments most widely used in Bangladesh include: biochar, a carbon-rich pyrolysis product that improves water retention, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and microbial habitat, particularly in coarse-textured, nutrient-poor soils (Karim et al., 2020); vermicompost/compost, which supplies stable organic matter, promotes aggregation and enhances both nutrient supply and buffering capacity; lime (CaCO3), applied to neutralize acidity in regions such as Sylhet and Mymensingh, where acid soils constrain phosphorus availability and microbial activity; and green manure (e.g., Sesbania, Dhaincha), which adds organic nitrogen, increases microbial diversity and stimulates the enzyme activity needed for nutrient mineralization.
           
    These amendments collectively raise soil organic carbon, improving structure, aggregate stability and moisture retention; enhance nutrient availability and retention by reducing leaching losses of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients; stimulate beneficial microbial biomass and enzymatic activity (e.g., dehydrogenase, phosphatase), improving nutrient cycling and disease suppression; and alleviate salinity, acidity and heavy-metal constraints, extending rice cultivation into marginal environments.
           
    Field evidence from salinity-affected zones such as Barisal and Khulna shows that integrated compost-biochar application increases rice yield by 20-25% relative to untreated controls, while also improving electrical conductivity management and root-zone microbial health.
     
    Synergistic effects of nanofertilizers and soil amendments
     
    Integrating nanofertilizers with organic and inorganic soil amendments produces synergistic effects that exceed the contribution of either input alone, improving nutrient cycling efficiency, stabilizing soil physicochemical properties, enhancing microbial functionality and increasing rice productivity (Fig 1). In Bangladesh’s intensively cultivated rice systems-characterized by low soil organic carbon, nutrient imbalance and high nitrogen losses-this synergy offers a scientifically grounded pathway toward sustainable intensification (Stojanova et al., 2025), summarized comparatively in Table 1.

    Fig 1: Synergistic effects of nanofertilizers and soil amendments on rice productivity and soil health.



    Table 1: Comparative impacts of nanofertilizers, soil amendments and their combined application on agronomic and soil parameters.


     
    Mechanisms driving synergistic benefits
     
    Four interacting processes govern the productivity gains observed under integrated nano-amendment management: soil chemical buffering, nanoparticle stabilization, microbial mediation and improved root-zone functioning.
           
    Lime, compost and biochar buffer soil pH, improving micronutrient solubility and reducing fixation (Mosharrof et al., 2022) -important given the localized acidity or alkalinity that constrains micronutrient availability across many Bangladeshi rice soils (Kabir et al., 2024) and which in turn improves the dissolution and efficacy of nano-formulated Zn, Fe and B. Organic matrices from compost and biochar also regulate nanoparticle mobility, binding particles through electrostatic attraction and surface complexation and reducing rapid leaching under flooded conditions (Swaren et al., 2022), ensuring gradual, demand-synchronized nutrient release. Amendments further stimulate microbial biomass and diversity, enhancing mineralization processes that complement nano-induced root exudation and strengthen plant-microbe-nutrient interactions (Ahmed et al., 2026). Finally, nanoparticles themselves stimulate root elongation and organic acid/enzyme secretion, expanding the absorptive surface area in organic-carbon-rich amended soils and improving nutrient mobilization and uptake (Zhang et al., 2024) -together creating a biologically and chemically buffered nutrient delivery system.
     
    Mechanistic basis of synergy
     
    The synergistic performance of nanofertilizers and soil amendments is governed by physicochemical interactions, diffusion kinetics, microbial enzyme dynamics and greenhouse gas regulation pathways operating within the rice rhizosphere.
     
    Nano-organic matter adsorption
     
    Organic amendments carry abundant functional groups- carboxyl, hydroxyl, phenolic and amine-that interact with engineered nanoparticles via electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, ligand exchange and cation bridging (Irannajad et al., 2019). Biochar’s oxygen-containing functional groups and high specific surface area provide active adsorption sites that allow Zn2+ released from nano-ZnO to bind through surface complexation, forming nano-organic complexes that slow nutrient release, reduce leaching and improve synchronization with plant demand (Arabzadeh et al., 2024; Trivedi et al., 2025; Martins et al., 2020; Munzeiwa et al., 2025) -a stabilization mechanism particularly valuable in submerged paddy soils, where conventional urea otherwise loses substantial nitrogen to volatilization.
     
    Nanoparticle aggregation and surface charge
     
    Nanoparticle stability in flooded soils depends on ionic strength, redox conditions and dissolved organic carbon (DOC); without organic stabilizers, particles tend to aggregate via van der Waals attraction. DOC from compost and green manure provides steric stabilization and shifts zeta potential toward more negative values, enhancing electrostatic repulsion and dispersion (Yuqing et al., 2021) -improving root-nanoparticle contact, nutrient distribution uniformity and rhizosphere diffusion gradients.
     
    Nutrient diffusion and nano-CEC interactions
     
    The nanoscale size of fertilizer particles accelerates dissolution and diffusion; combined with amendment-driven increases in cation exchange capacity, this improves nutrient retention and buffering (Haydar et al., 2025). Under alternate wetting and drying (AWD), repeated aerobic–anaerobic cycles drive oxidation, reduction, dissolution and speciation changes that influence nanoparticle aggregation, dispersion, mobility and environmental fate (Yang et al., 2009; Cruz et al., 2021; Haydar et al., 2026). Biochar and compost supply negatively charged exchange sites that adsorb NH4+ from nano-urea and retain Zn2+/Fe2+, reducing fixation in clay-dominated soils and creating a dynamic adsorption-desorption equilibrium that improves nitrogen use efficiency and micronutrient recovery under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions (Cai et al., 2016; Cao et al., 2017).
     
    Rhizosphere-mediated transformations
     
    Nanofertilizers stimulate root elongation, organic acid exudation and enzyme secretion; when amendments are present, increased microbial biomass and diversity activate urease (nitrogen mineralization), phosphatase (phosphorus solubilization) and dehydrogenase (microbial activity), accelerating the conversion of nano-retained nutrients into plant-available forms and reinforcing the nutrient cycling loop (Pinton et al., 2007; Wankhade et al., 2025).
     
    Microbial pathways and N2O mitigation
     
    Nano-biochar integration reduces N2O emissions primarily by regulating microbial nitrogen transformation. Biochar improves soil aeration and microbial habitat, influencing nitrification and denitrification (Tang et al., 2022), while nano-enabled nutrient delivery limits excess mineral nitrogen accumulation that would otherwise drive N2O formation during nitrification (Tierling and Kuhlmann, 2018). Biochar amendments also modify the abundance and activity of denitrification genes-nirK, nirS and the N2O-reducing gene nosZ-enhancing conversion of N2O to N2 (Harter et al., 2016; Aamer et al., 2020; Gao et al., 2025), while enhanced microbial nitrogen immobilization further retains N within microbial biomass. Field evidence indicates nano-biochar integration can lower N2O emissions by approximately 15-35% relative to conventional fertilization (Mofijul Islam et al., 2018; Dãncilã et al., 2025), supporting climate-resilient rice production and contributing to SDG 13.
     
    Alignment with sustainable development goals (SDGs)
     
    The integrated use of nanofertilizers and soil amendments contributes to several sustainable development Goals in Bangladesh’s agrarian context (Fig 2; Table 2). By improving nutrient use efficiency and raising yields by 25-40%, combined application strengthens food security and rural livelihoods (SDG 2). Reduced nitrate leaching and volatilization, paired with greater nutrient retention from biochar and compost, lowers nutrient runoff and protects water quality (SDG 6). Precision nutrient delivery alongside recycling of organic waste into compost and biochar promotes resource-efficient, circular agricultural practices (SDG 12). Long-term carbon sequestration from biochar and reduced N2O emissions support climate resilience and adaptation to salinity and drought stress (SDG 13). Finally, enhanced microbial diversity and reduced land degradation from organic amendments protect soil ecosystems and long-term fertility (SDG 15).

    Fig 2: Diagram summarizing SDG linkages.



    Table 2: Alignment of synergistic nanofertilizer-soil amendment application with sustainable development goals.


     
    Critical discussion: limitations and risk considerations
     
    Although the synergistic integration of nanofertilizers and soil amendments shows considerable agronomic and environmental promise, several scientific, regulatory, ecological and socio-economic concerns must be addressed before large-scale adoption in Bangladesh’s rice systems.
           
    Engineered nanoparticles exhibit high surface reactivity and mobility relative to bulk materials (Pattanayak and Siddhartha, 2024), which improves nutrient delivery but may also pose ecotoxicological risks-including oxidative stress at supra-optimal concentrations, disruption of beneficial microbial communities, inhibition of enzymatic activity in sensitive taxa and entry into aquatic ecosystems via runoff (Patil et al., 2026). Metal-based nanoparticles (e.g., ZnO, Fe2O3) may dissolve into ionic forms that alter redox balance and microbial community structure; while many studies report safe application thresholds, long-term chronic-exposure data under tropical flooded rice conditions remain limited (Thomas et al., 2025; Alizadeh et al., 2025), underscoring the need for validated dose-response relationships and safe concentration limits.
           
    Regulatory frameworks for nano-enabled agricultural inputs remain underdeveloped in Bangladesh and many developing economies. Existing fertilizer regulations address bulk chemical formulations but rarely account for nanoscale properties such as particle size distribution, surface functionalization, aggregation behavior and environmental persistence; standardized national protocols for nanoparticle risk assessment, labeling and quality control are still lacking. Developing science-based guidelines covering product characterization, environmental risk assessment and post-application monitoring is critical for responsible deployment.
           
    Repeated nanofertilizer application also raises concerns about nanoparticle persistence and accumulation in soil, where chemistry, redox conditions and transformation processes govern fate (Yaseen et al., 2025); under flooded paddy systems, alternating aerobic-anaerobic conditions may alter nanoparticle speciation and mobility, but long-term field studies (five years or more) remain scarce in South Asian agroecosystems (Rahman et al., 2025). ZnO- and Fe-based nanoparticles absorbed by roots can translocate to aboveground tissues, though grain accumulation is generally lower than root retention (Djanaguiraman et al., 2024); nevertheless, potential transfer into edible tissue raises food-chain exposure concerns (Rajput et al., 2020). Although current evidence suggests limited nanoparticle movement into grains, long-term bioavailability and chronic-consumption effects remain unclear (Altemimi et al., 2024) and FAO/WHO emphasize the need for residue monitoring and long-term safety evaluation before widespread adoption in food production systems (FAO and WHO, 2012).
           
    Economic feasibility is a further barrier. Nano-urea typically costs more per unit than subsidized conventional urea, but its higher nutrient use efficiency (60-85% vs. 30-50% for conventional urea) (Anwar et al., 2026) and lower application requirements can partially offset that premium; field studies report improved net returns and benefit-cost ratios when nano-urea supplements rather than replaces conventional fertilization. Even so, widespread smallholder adoption is likely to be constrained by higher initial costs, limited product availability, insufficient technical knowledge and the absence of targeted subsidy mechanisms.
     
    Future research priorities
     
    Realizing the full potential of integrated nano–amendment strategies requires an interdisciplinary, systems-based research agenda spanning soil science, agronomy, environmental chemistry and socio-economics. Priorities include: (i) replicated, multi-season field trials (minimum five years) across Bangladesh’s salinity-prone coastal, floodplain, acidic upland and drought-prone agroecological zones, evaluating yield stability, soil carbon dynamics, nutrient recovery, greenhouse gas emissions and residual nanoparticle accumulation; (ii) nano–biochar co-formulation research, since pre-loading nanoparticles onto biochar matrices may improve controlled release, reduce aggregation, enhance carbon sequestration and increase CEC and microbial colonization; (iii) life-cycle assessment quantifying the energy consumption, carbon footprint, resource extraction impacts and end-of-life behavior of nano-enabled fertilizers relative to conventional alternatives, since field-level efficiency gains must be weighed against upstream production costs; and (iv) socio-economic adoption research integrating farm-scale cost–benefit analysis, adoption-probability modeling, risk perception, policy simulation and gender and equity considerations in technology diffusion. Bridging agronomic innovation with this socio-economic evidence base will be essential to translating experimental success into real-world impact.

    CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

    Rice cultivation in Bangladesh stands at a critical juncture. Persistent nutrient imbalance, declining soil fertility, water stress and inefficient input use continue to constrain productivity, even as blanket conventional fertilizer application approaches the limits of its effectiveness and contributes to environmental degradation. Integrating nanofertilizers-which deliver nutrients efficiently at reduced application rates-with soil amendments that restore organic carbon, structure and microbial health offers a transformative, multiplicative pathway: enhancing nutrient availability, stabilizing soil function and raising rice yield by up to 40%, while advancing SDG 2 (food security), SDG 13 (climate action) and SDG 15 (sustainable land use).
           
    Realizing this potential will require: (1) national fertilizer policy that incentivizes combined nanofertilizer–amendment use through demonstration plots and revised extension guidelines; (2) strengthened farmer training on safe handling, timing and benefits of these inputs; (3) location-specific nutrient recommendation systems built on tools such as the Soil Health Card and Nutrient Expert, tailored to nano-based and organic inputs; (4) support for local compost, vermicompost and biochar production from agro-waste to build circular-economy and rural employment benefits; and (5) sustained long-term field trials and policy integration to evaluate residual effects, crop-specific responses and environmental footprints across Bangladesh’s diverse agroecological zones.
           
    A synergistic strategy that combines nanotechnology with organic soil management is not only agronomically promising but essential to the resilience and long-term sustainability of Bangladesh’s rice sector under mounting climate and resource pressures.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by Bangabandhu Science and Technology Fellowship Trust, Ministry of Science and Technology, BCSIR Complex, Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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