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Full Research Article

Phosphorus Spraying to Enhance Wheat Productivity in Desert Areas (Triticum aestivum L.)

S
Salam Hameed Abdulla1,*
A
Abdul-Mahdi Saleh Hussein1
K
Kareem Hanoon Mohsen1
1Department of Field Crop, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Iraq.

ABSTRACT

Background: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a predominant staple food across the globe, supplying approximately 50% of daily calories in several countries based on its high proteins, starches, fibers, carbohydrates, vitamins and mineral contents. The study aimed to investigate the role and application method of phosphorus fertilizer and its impact on the growth and yield traits of two wheat cultivars (Baghdad and Babel) grown under desert conditions (Triticum aestivum L.).

Methods: A field trial was implemented in the Al-Lehais region, located approximately 125 km west of the Basra Governorate Center, during the 2023-24 and 2024-25 growing seasons. Phosphate fertilizer was applied in three ways: soil application, foliar spray and a combination of soil application and foliar spray. Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP 62% P2O5) fertilizer was applied at four levels: (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg P/ha for soil application and mixed application with foliar spraying and (0, 10, 20 and 30) kg P/ha for foliar spraying. For soil application, half the fertilizer was applied at planting and the other half was as a foliar spray in two equal doses during the elongation and flowering stages. For foliar spraying, the fertilizer dose was divided into three equal doses applied during the tillering, elongation and flowering stages. The crop growth rate from elongation to full maturity, total plant dry weight, phosphorus uptake at full maturity and fertilizer use efficiency were studied.

Result: The results showed significant differences in the studied traits (crop growth rate, dry weight, amount of phosphorus absorbed, phosphorus utilization efficiency and grain yield) among the application methods. The foliar application method was superior to the other application methods, even though the amount applied by spraying was only one-third of the amount applied by soil application and the combined soil and spray application methods. Increasing phosphorus levels generally improved growth parameters and most measured traits. The Baghdad cultivar exhibited superior performance across all growth parameters and application methods.

INTRODUCTION

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a predominant staple food across the globe, supplying approximately 50% of daily calories in several countries based on its high proteins, starches, fibers, carbohydrates, vitamins and mineral contents (Elsahookie et al., 2021; Obaid et al., 2025). Its role in assuring global food security is strategic: in production, consumption and cultivated area. The world average productivity is 3.59 tons/ha (USDA, 2023) and Iraq is based on an average yield of 1.79 tons/ha (Directorate of Agriculture Statistics, 2023).
       
Balanced nutrition help in optimization of both the macro and micro nutrient requirement for growth, development, yield without deficiency (Ali, 2001; Panuccio, 2009). Phosphorus is one of the essential nutrients, playing a key role in energy transfer and various physiological processes within plants, such as the synthesis of energy related molecules, enzymatic cofactors, nucleotides, lipids and phosphoproteins (Al-Mawsili, 2018). However, phosphorus applied as fertilizers is commonly immobilized and precipitated in soil, leaving only 15-30% available (Huang et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2018; Al-Hilfi  et al., 2018).
     
In order to enhance the use-efficiency of phosphorus, several application measures are used including banding between crop rows, applying on or in furrow, fertigation and direct foliar spraying. These practices increase phosphorus absorption, stimulate plant growth and enhance grain yield and quality, particularly in soils with a high P-fixation potential, (Al-Rashidi et al., 2010; Mosali et al., 2006). Plants are also reported to be able to adopt nutrients in part through foliar absorption (Al-Alusi et al., 2003) and the remaining is supplied by root uptake. Indeed, foliar application seems to surpass soil application in inducing growth and eventual yield, especially in calcareous soils with low available nutrients especially phosphorus.
       
Moreover, applying fertilizers through irrigation water (fertigation) is considered an effective technique for overcoming phosphorus fixation, optimizing fertilizer timing, minimizing nutrient losses and improving nutrient use efficiency (Iqbal, 2013). Given the expansion of wheat cultivation into desert regions, which are characterized by poor retention of nutrients and water and the lack of previous studies on the effect of phosphorus on the growth and productivity of wheat cultivars irrigated by sprinkler systems, this study was conducted.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A field experiment was conducted on a farmer’s field located in the desert area of Al-Lehais, Basra Governorate, southern Iraq, to evaluate the effect of phosphorus fertilization methods on the growth and yield of two wheat cultivars grown under desert conditions during the 2023-24 and 2024-25 growing seasons.
    
Before sowing, random soil samples were collected from a depth of 0-30 cm, thoroughly mixed, air-dried, ground and sieved through a 2-mm mesh. The physical and chemical properties of the soil were determined in the Central Laboratory, College of Agriculture, University of Basra, as presented in Table (1). The organic matter content was estimated based on organic carbon using the Walkley-Black method.

Table 1: Some physical and chemical properties of the experimental field soil during the two seasons before planting.


 
Experimental factors
 
Phosphorus fertilizer application methods
 
Monoa-mmonium phosphate (MAP) was applied in three different ways:
 
a. Soil application (S):  The phosphorus fertilizer was applied to the soil at different levels in a   single dose at sowing, placed in bands close to the seed rows.
 
b. Foliar application (F): The total phosphorus dose was divided into three equal portions and applied as foliar sprays at the tillering, elongation and booting stages.
 
c. Combined application (M):  Half of the required phosphorus dose was applied to the soil near the seed rows and the remaining half was divided into two foliar sprays applied at the elongation and booting stages.
 
Phosphate fertilizer levels
 
a. Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP 62% P2O5) was applied at four levels. A. 0, 30, 60 and 90 kg P2O5/ha for soil application (S) and a combination of soil application and foliar spraying (M), denoted as (p0, p1, p2, p3).

b. 0, 10, 20 and 30 kg P2O5/ha for foliar spraying (F), with an additional 5 kg P2O5/ha added. The required amount of phosphate fertilizer, according to the treatment, was added in distilled water sufficient to thoroughly wet the plants in the experimental units. A spreading and adhering agent was added to the fertilizer on the plant parts and a pH regulator was added to maintain a pH of 5.5-6.0. The plants were sprayed using a 16-liter knapsack sprayer until thoroughly wet at sunset.
 
Wheat cultivars
 
Two cultivars were used in the present trial (Table 2).

Table 2: Wheat cultivars and their genetic origin and year of release.


       
The experimental field was plowed using a moldboard plow, followed by soil smoothing with disc harrows, then leveled and divided into several experimental units. Each experimental plot measured 2 m x 3 m with a 1 m buffer zone between plots. Each plot contained ten rows, each 3 m long, spaced 20 cm apart. A 1 m distance was also maintained between replications.
       
Sowing was carried out at a seeding rate of 120 kg P2O5/ha on November 23, 2023 and November 23, 2024, for the two respective seasons. Monoa-mmonium phosphate (MAP, 62% P2O5) was applied at four levels using three application methods according to the experimental design.
       
Urea nitrogen fertilizer was used at a rate of 180 kg of nitrogen per hectare in three equal portions: The first after emergence, the second at tillering and the third at elongation, following Al-Abdullah (2015). The nitrogen content contributed by MAP was considered when calculating the urea rate. Potassium fertilizer was added at 120 kg K2O/ha as potassium sulfate (52% K2O) in a single dose at sowing (Al-Abidi, 2011). Manual weeding and other cultural practices were performed as needed throughout the growing season.
 
Measured traits
 
1. Total dry weight (kg P2O5/ha): Plant samples were collected from a 1 m² area at full maturity. After cleaning, the samples were oven-dried at 70°C until constant weight and the dry weights were then recorded and converted to kg/ha.

2. Crop growth rate (CGR, kg P2O5/ha /day): The CGR was calculated for the period between 50% booting and full maturity using the following formula:
 
 
 
Where,
W1 and W2 = The first and second dry weights, measured in grams. 
T1 and T2 = The first and second sampling times.
 
3. Phosphorus concentration: 0.2 g of the ground plant samples were digested using a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated perchloric acid in a 4:96 ratio.

Phosphorus concentration in the digested samples was determined using the ammonium molybdate and ascorbic acid method via a Spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 700 nm, following the procedure.
 
4. Grain yield (t/ha): This was determined by weighing the grain yield from a randomly selected one-square-meter area within each experimental plot. After threshing the harvested sample, the weight was converted to tons per  hectare.
 
5. Quantity of phosphorus absorbed (kg/ha): The amount of phosphorus absorbed in the plant samples for each experimental unit was calculated using the following formula:
 
Phosphorus absorbed (kg/ha) = Phosphorus concentration x Dry matter weight
 
6. Fertilizer use efficiency (%): Fertilizer use efficiency was calculated for the phosphate fertilizer sources, taking into account the sum of the soil-applied and foliar-applied nano-phosphate fertilizer, based on the following formula:
 
   

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Crop growth rate
 
The results of the statistical analysis, shown in Table (3) and Fig 1 (A, B), indicate that increasing phosphorus levels led to an increase in the daily growth rates of the plants by all application methods, in cultivars, during both growing seasons. The daily growth rates of plants treated with soil-applied phosphorus were lower than those of plants fertilized using the other two application methods, across all phosphorus levels, for both cultivars and in both seasons. The Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar in terms of growth rate across all phosphorus levels and application methods in both seasons.

Table 3: Analysis of variance for the study treatments for the 2023-24 season.



Fig 1: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on crop growth rate (kg/ha/day) during the 2023-2024 (A) and 2024-2025 (B) growing seasons.


       
The Baghdad cultivar recorded the highest growth rate at level (p3) for the foliar application method, with values of 60.81 and 58.97 kg/ha/day for the 1st and 2nd seasons, respectively. Under the same treatment, the Babylon cultivar recorded values of 58.34 and 57.81 kg/ha/day for the 1st and 2nd seasons, respectively. The lowest growth rate was recorded by the control treatment (p0) across all application methods, with average values of 29.04 kg/ha/day in the first season and 29.07 kg/ha/day in the second season.
 
Dry weight
 
The results of the statistical analysis, presented in Table 3 and Fig 2 (A, B), demonstrate the superiority of the foliar phosphorus application method with levels in producing dry weight, of cultivars in both growing seasons. In contrast, the soil application treatment resulted in the lowest dry weight for both cultivars, across all added phosphorus levels and in both seasons.

Table 3: Analysis of variance for the study treatments for the 2023-24 season.



Fig 2: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on total dry weight (kg/ha) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


       
The results also indicate that the Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar across all treatments and in both seasons. Furthermore, increasing the levels of phosphorus added via the different methods led to an increase in the dry weight of both cultivars, across all added phosphorus levels and in both growing seasons.
       
The highest dry weight values were recorded for treatment (p3) with the Baghdad cultivar, reaching 6920.0 and 6135.3 kg/ha in the 1st and 2nd, respectively. The minimum values were in the control treatment (p0) across all application methods, averaging 3468.1 and 2683.9 kg/ha for the Baghdad cultivar in the 1st and 2nd season, respectively.
       
For the Babylon cultivar, the optimum values were recorded at level (p3) with the foliar application method, reaching 6712.3 and 6006.2 kg/ha for the two seasons respectively, while the lowest values were in the control treatment, averaging 3356.2 and 2627.6 kg/ha for the two seasons respectively.
       
Note: There appears to be a typographical error in the original text for the Babylon control in the second season (26277.6). The value 2627.6 kg/ha, which is consistent with the context and the first-season value, has been used in the translation.

Grain yield
 
The results shown in Table 3 and Fig 3 (A, B), revealed that foliar application of phosphorus was superior in grain yield compared to soil application and combined soil and foliar application treatments for all phosphorus levels applied, for both cultivars and for both growing seasons. Plants treated with soil-applied phosphorus yielded the lowest grain production for both cultivars, across all phosphorus levels and in both growing seasons. Plants receiving phosphorus via the combined soil and foliar application method produced a grain yield higher than the soil application treatment but lower than the foliar application treatment, across all treatments.

​

Table 3 Continue: Analysis of variance for the study treatments for the 2024-25 season.



Fig 3: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on grain yield (kg/ha) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


       
Notably, plants fertilized with 20 kg P/ha via foliar application yielded higher than plants fertilized with 90 kg P2O5 via soil application, for both cultivars and in both growing seasons.
       
The highest grain yield was observed in the foliar phosphorus application treatment at the 30 kg P ha-1 level for both the Baghdad and Babylon cultivars, reaching 4.367 and 4.017 t/ha respectively in the first season and 4.367 and 4.060 t/ha in the second season.
       
Plants in the control treatment (p0) produced the lowest grain yield for both cultivars and in both seasons, with an average of 1.297 t/ha in the first season and 1.418 t/ha in the second season.
 
Phosphorus uptake
 
The results of the statistical analysis in Table (3) and Fig 4 (A and B) demonstrate the superiority of the foliar phosphorus application in phosphorus uptake by cultivars during both the seasons. In contrast, the soil application treatment resulted in the lowest amount of phosphorus taken by both cultivars, across all added phosphorus levels and in both seasons.

Fig 4: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on phosphorus uptake (kg/ha) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


       
The results also indicate that the Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar in phosphorus uptake across all treatments in both seasons. Furthermore, increasing the levels of phosphorus added via the different methods led to an increase in the amount of phosphorus absorbed by cultivars, in both growing seasons.
       
The highest values for the quantity of phosphorus absorbed were recorded for treatment (p3) with the Baghdad cultivar under the foliar application method, reaching 29.48 and 26.33 kg/ha in the first and second seasons, respectively. The lowest values were in the control treatment (p0) across all application methods, averaging 5.72 and 4.20 kg/ha for the Baghdad cultivar in the first and second seasons, respectively.
       
For the Babylon cultivar, the highest values were recorded at level (p3), reaching 28.19 and 21.56 kg/ha for the two seasons respectively, while the lowest values were in the control treatment, reaching 5.53 and 4.12 kg/ha for the two seasons, respectively.
 
Fertilizer use efficiency
 
Table 3 and Fig 5 (A, B) display the results of the statistical analysis, indicating that foliar application of phosphorus was superior in phosphorus use efficiency for all applied phosphorus levels, by cultivars during both growing seasons compared to the other two application methods. The results also show that the lowest efficiency value was recorded with the soil application of phosphorus for all treatments. Furthermore, the results indicate that increasing phosphorus levels led to a decrease in phosphorus use efficiency for all treatments (except for the mixed application method in the second season). The results also show that the Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar. For all treatments, the highest efficiency value was recorded at the p1 level for the foliar application method, reaching 84.58 and 74.25% for the Baghdad cultivar and 84.11 and 55.27% for the Babylon cultivar in 1st and 2nd  seasons, respectively. The lowest efficiency values   were recorded with the soil application method at level p3, reaching 17.66 and 17.29% for the Baghdad cultivar and 16.0and 16.91% for the Babylon cultivar during the 1st and 2nd growing seasons, respectively.

Fig 5: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on phosphorus use efficiency (%) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


       
The results of this study further indicated that foliar application of P can significantly surpass soil and mix methods on increasing crop growth rate (Fig 1), total dry weight (Fig 2), grain yield (Fig 3), phosphorus uptake (Fig 4) and phosphorus utilization efficiency (Fig 5). This was accomplished even though the soil and the combined methods received three times more phosphorus than the foliar method. These results are consistent with other findings that the efficiency of foliar application in supplying nutrients is related to its rapid delivery directly into plants  (leaves) and enhanced uptake and use of nutrient. This strategy may also reduce problems such as soil nutrient fixation and shortage in low moisture conditions. Furthermore, application of foliar fertilizers provides a better and extended balanced nutrition during various growth stages leading to improved dry matter and grain yield (Izhar et al., 2020; Valkama et al., 2009; Tadros et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2018).
     
The results also indicated that addition of phosphorus by various methods increased all traits. This may be attributed to the crucial function of phosphorus in plant physiological processes; cell division and elongation are influenced by phosphorus, leading to strong vegetative growth and accumulation of dry matter. Phosphorus also favors the establishment of a well-developed root system to aid in an efficient uptake of water and nutrients, which positively influences growth parameters as plant height, leaf area and spike length, finally enhanced yield components like grain number and thousand-grain weight. Higher phosphorus concentration increases its availability in the soil and absorption by the plant, which eventually improves level of photosynthesis dry matter accumulation and grain yield. These findings are in agreement with Islam et al., (2013); Al-Maeni and Al-Bajary (2019); Samreen and Kausar (2019); Deng et al., (2018); Mumtaz and Khan  (2023) all proved the beneficial effect of elevated phosphorus application on wheat growth and yield.
               
The results also indicate that the Baghdad variety outperformed the Babylon variety in growth and production. The genetic difference between the varieties showed an important role in the plant’s response to phosphorus and methods of addition, as the Baghdad variety was more efficient than the Babylon variety in utilizing the added phosphorus and converting it into vital building blocks such as nucleic acids and energy, which enhanced vital growth processes such as cell division and photosynthesis, increased the growth of different plant parts and the accumulation of dry matter and was reflected positively in grain yield rates (Samreen and Kausar, 2019; Saghfi et al., 2015).

CONCLUSION

Foliar spray enhanced crop growth rate, dry weight production, grain yield, P uptake and P use efficiency in both the years receiving a 1/3rd of phosphorus dose applied in soil. All the traits were consistent in terms of their positive response to increasing P levels, suggesting that phosphorus is an essential nutrient of great importance related to physiological and biochemical processes governing vegetative growth and grain enlargement. The variety Baghdad showed higher superiority over Babel than that in all parameters and phosphorus levels enhanced the different traits. These results highlight the effectiveness of foliar fertilization as an operational approach in soils with high phosphorus fixation and restrict nutrient supply.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The present study was supported by Department of Field Crop, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Iraq.
 
Authors’ contribution
 
All authors contributed equally to the conceptualization, experimental design, fieldwork, laboratory analyses, statistical interpretation and manuscript preparation. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
This study is among the first to evaluate the comparative effectiveness of soil, foliar and combined phosphorus application methods on wheat grown under sprinkler irrigation in Iraqi desert soils. The results provide new insights demonstrating that foliar phosphorus application, even at reduced rates, can surpass traditional soil fertilization in enhancing growth, nutrient uptake and grain yield-offering an efficient, resource-saving fertilization strategy for arid and semi-arid regions.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No. funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES


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    Full Research Article

    Phosphorus Spraying to Enhance Wheat Productivity in Desert Areas (Triticum aestivum L.)

    S
    Salam Hameed Abdulla1,*
    A
    Abdul-Mahdi Saleh Hussein1
    K
    Kareem Hanoon Mohsen1
    1Department of Field Crop, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Iraq.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a predominant staple food across the globe, supplying approximately 50% of daily calories in several countries based on its high proteins, starches, fibers, carbohydrates, vitamins and mineral contents. The study aimed to investigate the role and application method of phosphorus fertilizer and its impact on the growth and yield traits of two wheat cultivars (Baghdad and Babel) grown under desert conditions (Triticum aestivum L.).

    Methods: A field trial was implemented in the Al-Lehais region, located approximately 125 km west of the Basra Governorate Center, during the 2023-24 and 2024-25 growing seasons. Phosphate fertilizer was applied in three ways: soil application, foliar spray and a combination of soil application and foliar spray. Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP 62% P2O5) fertilizer was applied at four levels: (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg P/ha for soil application and mixed application with foliar spraying and (0, 10, 20 and 30) kg P/ha for foliar spraying. For soil application, half the fertilizer was applied at planting and the other half was as a foliar spray in two equal doses during the elongation and flowering stages. For foliar spraying, the fertilizer dose was divided into three equal doses applied during the tillering, elongation and flowering stages. The crop growth rate from elongation to full maturity, total plant dry weight, phosphorus uptake at full maturity and fertilizer use efficiency were studied.

    Result: The results showed significant differences in the studied traits (crop growth rate, dry weight, amount of phosphorus absorbed, phosphorus utilization efficiency and grain yield) among the application methods. The foliar application method was superior to the other application methods, even though the amount applied by spraying was only one-third of the amount applied by soil application and the combined soil and spray application methods. Increasing phosphorus levels generally improved growth parameters and most measured traits. The Baghdad cultivar exhibited superior performance across all growth parameters and application methods.

    INTRODUCTION

    Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a predominant staple food across the globe, supplying approximately 50% of daily calories in several countries based on its high proteins, starches, fibers, carbohydrates, vitamins and mineral contents (Elsahookie et al., 2021; Obaid et al., 2025). Its role in assuring global food security is strategic: in production, consumption and cultivated area. The world average productivity is 3.59 tons/ha (USDA, 2023) and Iraq is based on an average yield of 1.79 tons/ha (Directorate of Agriculture Statistics, 2023).
           
    Balanced nutrition help in optimization of both the macro and micro nutrient requirement for growth, development, yield without deficiency (Ali, 2001; Panuccio, 2009). Phosphorus is one of the essential nutrients, playing a key role in energy transfer and various physiological processes within plants, such as the synthesis of energy related molecules, enzymatic cofactors, nucleotides, lipids and phosphoproteins (Al-Mawsili, 2018). However, phosphorus applied as fertilizers is commonly immobilized and precipitated in soil, leaving only 15-30% available (Huang et al., 2015; Zhu et al., 2018; Al-Hilfi  et al., 2018).
         
    In order to enhance the use-efficiency of phosphorus, several application measures are used including banding between crop rows, applying on or in furrow, fertigation and direct foliar spraying. These practices increase phosphorus absorption, stimulate plant growth and enhance grain yield and quality, particularly in soils with a high P-fixation potential, (Al-Rashidi et al., 2010; Mosali et al., 2006). Plants are also reported to be able to adopt nutrients in part through foliar absorption (Al-Alusi et al., 2003) and the remaining is supplied by root uptake. Indeed, foliar application seems to surpass soil application in inducing growth and eventual yield, especially in calcareous soils with low available nutrients especially phosphorus.
           
    Moreover, applying fertilizers through irrigation water (fertigation) is considered an effective technique for overcoming phosphorus fixation, optimizing fertilizer timing, minimizing nutrient losses and improving nutrient use efficiency (Iqbal, 2013). Given the expansion of wheat cultivation into desert regions, which are characterized by poor retention of nutrients and water and the lack of previous studies on the effect of phosphorus on the growth and productivity of wheat cultivars irrigated by sprinkler systems, this study was conducted.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    A field experiment was conducted on a farmer’s field located in the desert area of Al-Lehais, Basra Governorate, southern Iraq, to evaluate the effect of phosphorus fertilization methods on the growth and yield of two wheat cultivars grown under desert conditions during the 2023-24 and 2024-25 growing seasons.
        
    Before sowing, random soil samples were collected from a depth of 0-30 cm, thoroughly mixed, air-dried, ground and sieved through a 2-mm mesh. The physical and chemical properties of the soil were determined in the Central Laboratory, College of Agriculture, University of Basra, as presented in Table (1). The organic matter content was estimated based on organic carbon using the Walkley-Black method.

    Table 1: Some physical and chemical properties of the experimental field soil during the two seasons before planting.


     
    Experimental factors
     
    Phosphorus fertilizer application methods
     
    Monoa-mmonium phosphate (MAP) was applied in three different ways:
     
    a. Soil application (S):  The phosphorus fertilizer was applied to the soil at different levels in a   single dose at sowing, placed in bands close to the seed rows.
     
    b. Foliar application (F): The total phosphorus dose was divided into three equal portions and applied as foliar sprays at the tillering, elongation and booting stages.
     
    c. Combined application (M):  Half of the required phosphorus dose was applied to the soil near the seed rows and the remaining half was divided into two foliar sprays applied at the elongation and booting stages.
     
    Phosphate fertilizer levels
     
    a. Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP 62% P2O5) was applied at four levels. A. 0, 30, 60 and 90 kg P2O5/ha for soil application (S) and a combination of soil application and foliar spraying (M), denoted as (p0, p1, p2, p3).

    b. 0, 10, 20 and 30 kg P2O5/ha for foliar spraying (F), with an additional 5 kg P2O5/ha added. The required amount of phosphate fertilizer, according to the treatment, was added in distilled water sufficient to thoroughly wet the plants in the experimental units. A spreading and adhering agent was added to the fertilizer on the plant parts and a pH regulator was added to maintain a pH of 5.5-6.0. The plants were sprayed using a 16-liter knapsack sprayer until thoroughly wet at sunset.
     
    Wheat cultivars
     
    Two cultivars were used in the present trial (Table 2).

    Table 2: Wheat cultivars and their genetic origin and year of release.


           
    The experimental field was plowed using a moldboard plow, followed by soil smoothing with disc harrows, then leveled and divided into several experimental units. Each experimental plot measured 2 m x 3 m with a 1 m buffer zone between plots. Each plot contained ten rows, each 3 m long, spaced 20 cm apart. A 1 m distance was also maintained between replications.
           
    Sowing was carried out at a seeding rate of 120 kg P2O5/ha on November 23, 2023 and November 23, 2024, for the two respective seasons. Monoa-mmonium phosphate (MAP, 62% P2O5) was applied at four levels using three application methods according to the experimental design.
           
    Urea nitrogen fertilizer was used at a rate of 180 kg of nitrogen per hectare in three equal portions: The first after emergence, the second at tillering and the third at elongation, following Al-Abdullah (2015). The nitrogen content contributed by MAP was considered when calculating the urea rate. Potassium fertilizer was added at 120 kg K2O/ha as potassium sulfate (52% K2O) in a single dose at sowing (Al-Abidi, 2011). Manual weeding and other cultural practices were performed as needed throughout the growing season.
     
    Measured traits
     
    1. Total dry weight (kg P2O5/ha): Plant samples were collected from a 1 m² area at full maturity. After cleaning, the samples were oven-dried at 70°C until constant weight and the dry weights were then recorded and converted to kg/ha.

    2. Crop growth rate (CGR, kg P2O5/ha /day): The CGR was calculated for the period between 50% booting and full maturity using the following formula:
     
     
     
    Where,
    W1 and W2 = The first and second dry weights, measured in grams. 
    T1 and T2 = The first and second sampling times.
     
    3. Phosphorus concentration: 0.2 g of the ground plant samples were digested using a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated perchloric acid in a 4:96 ratio.

    Phosphorus concentration in the digested samples was determined using the ammonium molybdate and ascorbic acid method via a Spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 700 nm, following the procedure.
     
    4. Grain yield (t/ha): This was determined by weighing the grain yield from a randomly selected one-square-meter area within each experimental plot. After threshing the harvested sample, the weight was converted to tons per  hectare.
     
    5. Quantity of phosphorus absorbed (kg/ha): The amount of phosphorus absorbed in the plant samples for each experimental unit was calculated using the following formula:
     
    Phosphorus absorbed (kg/ha) = Phosphorus concentration x Dry matter weight
     
    6. Fertilizer use efficiency (%): Fertilizer use efficiency was calculated for the phosphate fertilizer sources, taking into account the sum of the soil-applied and foliar-applied nano-phosphate fertilizer, based on the following formula:
     
       

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Crop growth rate
     
    The results of the statistical analysis, shown in Table (3) and Fig 1 (A, B), indicate that increasing phosphorus levels led to an increase in the daily growth rates of the plants by all application methods, in cultivars, during both growing seasons. The daily growth rates of plants treated with soil-applied phosphorus were lower than those of plants fertilized using the other two application methods, across all phosphorus levels, for both cultivars and in both seasons. The Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar in terms of growth rate across all phosphorus levels and application methods in both seasons.

    Table 3: Analysis of variance for the study treatments for the 2023-24 season.



    Fig 1: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on crop growth rate (kg/ha/day) during the 2023-2024 (A) and 2024-2025 (B) growing seasons.


           
    The Baghdad cultivar recorded the highest growth rate at level (p3) for the foliar application method, with values of 60.81 and 58.97 kg/ha/day for the 1st and 2nd seasons, respectively. Under the same treatment, the Babylon cultivar recorded values of 58.34 and 57.81 kg/ha/day for the 1st and 2nd seasons, respectively. The lowest growth rate was recorded by the control treatment (p0) across all application methods, with average values of 29.04 kg/ha/day in the first season and 29.07 kg/ha/day in the second season.
     
    Dry weight
     
    The results of the statistical analysis, presented in Table 3 and Fig 2 (A, B), demonstrate the superiority of the foliar phosphorus application method with levels in producing dry weight, of cultivars in both growing seasons. In contrast, the soil application treatment resulted in the lowest dry weight for both cultivars, across all added phosphorus levels and in both seasons.

    Table 3: Analysis of variance for the study treatments for the 2023-24 season.



    Fig 2: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on total dry weight (kg/ha) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


           
    The results also indicate that the Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar across all treatments and in both seasons. Furthermore, increasing the levels of phosphorus added via the different methods led to an increase in the dry weight of both cultivars, across all added phosphorus levels and in both growing seasons.
           
    The highest dry weight values were recorded for treatment (p3) with the Baghdad cultivar, reaching 6920.0 and 6135.3 kg/ha in the 1st and 2nd, respectively. The minimum values were in the control treatment (p0) across all application methods, averaging 3468.1 and 2683.9 kg/ha for the Baghdad cultivar in the 1st and 2nd season, respectively.
           
    For the Babylon cultivar, the optimum values were recorded at level (p3) with the foliar application method, reaching 6712.3 and 6006.2 kg/ha for the two seasons respectively, while the lowest values were in the control treatment, averaging 3356.2 and 2627.6 kg/ha for the two seasons respectively.
           
    Note: There appears to be a typographical error in the original text for the Babylon control in the second season (26277.6). The value 2627.6 kg/ha, which is consistent with the context and the first-season value, has been used in the translation.

    Grain yield
     
    The results shown in Table 3 and Fig 3 (A, B), revealed that foliar application of phosphorus was superior in grain yield compared to soil application and combined soil and foliar application treatments for all phosphorus levels applied, for both cultivars and for both growing seasons. Plants treated with soil-applied phosphorus yielded the lowest grain production for both cultivars, across all phosphorus levels and in both growing seasons. Plants receiving phosphorus via the combined soil and foliar application method produced a grain yield higher than the soil application treatment but lower than the foliar application treatment, across all treatments.

    ​

    Table 3 Continue: Analysis of variance for the study treatments for the 2024-25 season.



    Fig 3: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on grain yield (kg/ha) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


           
    Notably, plants fertilized with 20 kg P/ha via foliar application yielded higher than plants fertilized with 90 kg P2O5 via soil application, for both cultivars and in both growing seasons.
           
    The highest grain yield was observed in the foliar phosphorus application treatment at the 30 kg P ha-1 level for both the Baghdad and Babylon cultivars, reaching 4.367 and 4.017 t/ha respectively in the first season and 4.367 and 4.060 t/ha in the second season.
           
    Plants in the control treatment (p0) produced the lowest grain yield for both cultivars and in both seasons, with an average of 1.297 t/ha in the first season and 1.418 t/ha in the second season.
     
    Phosphorus uptake
     
    The results of the statistical analysis in Table (3) and Fig 4 (A and B) demonstrate the superiority of the foliar phosphorus application in phosphorus uptake by cultivars during both the seasons. In contrast, the soil application treatment resulted in the lowest amount of phosphorus taken by both cultivars, across all added phosphorus levels and in both seasons.

    Fig 4: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on phosphorus uptake (kg/ha) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


           
    The results also indicate that the Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar in phosphorus uptake across all treatments in both seasons. Furthermore, increasing the levels of phosphorus added via the different methods led to an increase in the amount of phosphorus absorbed by cultivars, in both growing seasons.
           
    The highest values for the quantity of phosphorus absorbed were recorded for treatment (p3) with the Baghdad cultivar under the foliar application method, reaching 29.48 and 26.33 kg/ha in the first and second seasons, respectively. The lowest values were in the control treatment (p0) across all application methods, averaging 5.72 and 4.20 kg/ha for the Baghdad cultivar in the first and second seasons, respectively.
           
    For the Babylon cultivar, the highest values were recorded at level (p3), reaching 28.19 and 21.56 kg/ha for the two seasons respectively, while the lowest values were in the control treatment, reaching 5.53 and 4.12 kg/ha for the two seasons, respectively.
     
    Fertilizer use efficiency
     
    Table 3 and Fig 5 (A, B) display the results of the statistical analysis, indicating that foliar application of phosphorus was superior in phosphorus use efficiency for all applied phosphorus levels, by cultivars during both growing seasons compared to the other two application methods. The results also show that the lowest efficiency value was recorded with the soil application of phosphorus for all treatments. Furthermore, the results indicate that increasing phosphorus levels led to a decrease in phosphorus use efficiency for all treatments (except for the mixed application method in the second season). The results also show that the Baghdad cultivar outperformed the Babylon cultivar. For all treatments, the highest efficiency value was recorded at the p1 level for the foliar application method, reaching 84.58 and 74.25% for the Baghdad cultivar and 84.11 and 55.27% for the Babylon cultivar in 1st and 2nd  seasons, respectively. The lowest efficiency values   were recorded with the soil application method at level p3, reaching 17.66 and 17.29% for the Baghdad cultivar and 16.0and 16.91% for the Babylon cultivar during the 1st and 2nd growing seasons, respectively.

    Fig 5: Effect of cultivars, application methods and phosphorus levels on phosphorus use efficiency (%) during the 2023-24 (A) and 2024-25 (B) growing seasons.


           
    The results of this study further indicated that foliar application of P can significantly surpass soil and mix methods on increasing crop growth rate (Fig 1), total dry weight (Fig 2), grain yield (Fig 3), phosphorus uptake (Fig 4) and phosphorus utilization efficiency (Fig 5). This was accomplished even though the soil and the combined methods received three times more phosphorus than the foliar method. These results are consistent with other findings that the efficiency of foliar application in supplying nutrients is related to its rapid delivery directly into plants  (leaves) and enhanced uptake and use of nutrient. This strategy may also reduce problems such as soil nutrient fixation and shortage in low moisture conditions. Furthermore, application of foliar fertilizers provides a better and extended balanced nutrition during various growth stages leading to improved dry matter and grain yield (Izhar et al., 2020; Valkama et al., 2009; Tadros et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2018).
         
    The results also indicated that addition of phosphorus by various methods increased all traits. This may be attributed to the crucial function of phosphorus in plant physiological processes; cell division and elongation are influenced by phosphorus, leading to strong vegetative growth and accumulation of dry matter. Phosphorus also favors the establishment of a well-developed root system to aid in an efficient uptake of water and nutrients, which positively influences growth parameters as plant height, leaf area and spike length, finally enhanced yield components like grain number and thousand-grain weight. Higher phosphorus concentration increases its availability in the soil and absorption by the plant, which eventually improves level of photosynthesis dry matter accumulation and grain yield. These findings are in agreement with Islam et al., (2013); Al-Maeni and Al-Bajary (2019); Samreen and Kausar (2019); Deng et al., (2018); Mumtaz and Khan  (2023) all proved the beneficial effect of elevated phosphorus application on wheat growth and yield.
                   
    The results also indicate that the Baghdad variety outperformed the Babylon variety in growth and production. The genetic difference between the varieties showed an important role in the plant’s response to phosphorus and methods of addition, as the Baghdad variety was more efficient than the Babylon variety in utilizing the added phosphorus and converting it into vital building blocks such as nucleic acids and energy, which enhanced vital growth processes such as cell division and photosynthesis, increased the growth of different plant parts and the accumulation of dry matter and was reflected positively in grain yield rates (Samreen and Kausar, 2019; Saghfi et al., 2015).

    CONCLUSION

    Foliar spray enhanced crop growth rate, dry weight production, grain yield, P uptake and P use efficiency in both the years receiving a 1/3rd of phosphorus dose applied in soil. All the traits were consistent in terms of their positive response to increasing P levels, suggesting that phosphorus is an essential nutrient of great importance related to physiological and biochemical processes governing vegetative growth and grain enlargement. The variety Baghdad showed higher superiority over Babel than that in all parameters and phosphorus levels enhanced the different traits. These results highlight the effectiveness of foliar fertilization as an operational approach in soils with high phosphorus fixation and restrict nutrient supply.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The present study was supported by Department of Field Crop, College of Agriculture, University of Basrah, Iraq.
     
    Authors’ contribution
     
    All authors contributed equally to the conceptualization, experimental design, fieldwork, laboratory analyses, statistical interpretation and manuscript preparation. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    This study is among the first to evaluate the comparative effectiveness of soil, foliar and combined phosphorus application methods on wheat grown under sprinkler irrigation in Iraqi desert soils. The results provide new insights demonstrating that foliar phosphorus application, even at reduced rates, can surpass traditional soil fertilization in enhancing growth, nutrient uptake and grain yield-offering an efficient, resource-saving fertilization strategy for arid and semi-arid regions.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No. funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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