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Full Research Article

Influence of Poultry Manure Amendment and Different Tree Spacings on the Growth and Yield of Cabbage Intercrop with Mulberry

A
Aruna Devi Angom1
0009-0001-8622-3904
K
Kalidas Upadhyaya1,*
0000-0002-5922-8443
J
Jyoti Jopir1
0009-0001-7320-1175
1Department of Forestry, School of Earth Sciences and Natural Resources Management, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizwal-796 004, Mizoram, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Mulberry-based intercropping offers an effective approach to improve land productivity, resource-use efficiency and farm income in sericulture systems. Cabbage, a high-value winter vegetable, can be successfully integrated into mulberry plantations, while poultry manure (PM) serves as a sustainable nutrient source that enhances soil fertility and crop performance. However, information on the combined effects of mulberry spacing and PM on cabbage productivity under Northeast Indian conditions remains limited. To evaluate the effect of different mulberry spacing levels and PM amendment on the growth, yield, land-use efficiency and economic returns of cabbage in a mulberry-based intercropping system.

Methods: The field experiment was conducted in a mulberry farm to study the effect of PM and different spacing levels of mulberry on the growth and yield of cabbage under mulberry based intercropping system.  Three different spacing levels of mulberry namely S1 (0.91 m × 1.22 m), S2 (0.91 m × 2.44 m) and S3 (0.91 m × 3.66 m) and sole cabbage under manured and non-manured conditions were evaluated in randomized block design (RBD) with three replications. Growth parameters of cabbage were recorded at 30, 60 and 90 days after transplanting (DAT), while yield attributes and productivity indices were assessed at harvest.

Result: The highest plant height (29.44 cm), head weight (1.827 kg plant-1) and cabbage yield (57347.61 kg ha-1) was recorded by cabbage intercropped with mulberry at S1 spacing with PM amendment. Highest head circumference (47.72 cm) and the percentage of marketable heads (99.32%) was obtained in S3 spacing. Harvest index was 68.9% to 80.8% and all intercropping treatments had land equivalent ratio (LER) values greater than one (1.449-1.752), indicating better land-use efficiency. The highest LER (1.752) was recorded in S3 with PM.

INTRODUCTION

Sericulture is an economically important agro-based enterprise characterized by rapid returns and relatively low capital investment, making it an attractive livelihood option for smallholder farming systems (Vishaka et al., 2017). Since mulberry (Morus spp.) serves as the exclusive host plant for the silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), optimizing its cultivation is fundamental to sustainable silk production. The perennial nature of mulberry creates inter-row spaces that can be effectively utilized for intercropping, thereby improving land-use efficiency, resources utilization, farm income and the sustainability of sericulture-bases production system (Vishaka et al., 2016).
       
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) is an important winter vegetable in Eastern Himalayan region, where its productivity is often limited by severe pest and disease incidence, leading to considerable yield losses and reduced market value during peak harvest periods (Choudhuri, 2016). Integrating cabbage into mulberry plantations provides an opportunity to enhance resources use efficiency, diversity farm income and improve food and livelihood security while minimizing production risks (Addo-Quaye et al., 2011; Rafiqui et al., 2023). Intercropping also enhances agroecosystem diversity, suppresses insect pests and effectively reduces weed infestation in mulberry plantations by limiting weed growth (Rafiqui et al., 2023). Poultry manure is a nutrient-rich organic amendment that promotes soil fertility, nutrient availability and crop productivity and its composted form can be used to increase nutrient utilization efficiency and cabbage yield (Amanullah et al., 2019; Donbiaksiam et al., 2026). Sarangthem et al., (2011) reported that organic amendments improve cabbage productivity and nutrient uptake while enhancing soil fertility.
       
Farmers increasingly adopt intercropping system as it increases total crop output per unit area and offer protection against total crop failure (Lyocks et al., 2013; Lalhmangaihzuali et al., 2025). However, information on the combined influence of mulberry spacing and PM amendment on cabbage performance under mulberry-based intercropping systems, particularly under the agro-climatic conditions of Northeast India, remains limited. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different mulberry spacing levels and PM amendment on the growth, yield, land-use efficiency and economic returns of cabbage grown in a mulberry-based intercropping system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2022-2024 at six-year-old farmer’s field located at Phayeng village of Manipur, with a latitude of 24°50′48"N, longitude of 93°48′57.3"E at 813 m above sea level. The study was carried out under the supervision of the Department of Forestry, Mizoram University, Aizawl. The site has a subtropical climate, with mean annual precipitation of 1187.80 mm (Weather Station - Phayeng, Directorate of Environment and Climate Change). The average maximum temperature recorded in May was 37.2°C, while the average minimum temperature in January was 3.8°C. Three different levels of mulberry spacing (S1 = 0.91 m × 1.22 m; S2 = 0.91 m × 2.44 m and S3 = 0.91 m × 3.66 m) were selected for the intercropping of cabbage and the experimental plot was laid out in an RBD with three replications. Cabbage seeds (Var. Green hero) were broadcast on a nursery tray and the seedlings were transplanted after 6 weeks of nursing and when they attained an average height of 12 cm with 6 leaves (Choudhary et al., 2009) with 60 cm inter- and intra-spacing between the rows of mulberry (Fig 1). PM was applied 15 days before transplanting for equilibration. After transplanting, all recommended agronomic practices were followed throughout the experiment. The treatments used were:
T1- Sole cabbage + poultry manure.
T2- Sole cabbage.
T3- S1 + cabbage + poultry manure.
T4- S1 + cabbage.
T5- S2 + cabbage + poultry manure.
T6- S2 + cabbage.
T7- S3 + cabbage + poultry manure.
T8- S3 + cabbage.

Fig 1: Growth and harvesting of cabbage under mulberry intercropping with different levels of spacing.


       
Growth parameters (Plant height and days to head formation) at 30, 60 and 90 days after transplanting (DAT) while head circumference, marketable head weight, outer leaf number and yield were recorded at harvest on six randomly selected sample plants per plot and the mean values were recorded.
       
Mulberry was also grown as a sole crop under the three spacing (S1, S2, S3) levels with and without PM to calculate the land equivalent ratio (LER). Feedable leaf yield were recorded 90 days after pruning for both sole and intercropped mulberry. The yield of cabbage per hectare, LER and harvest index were calculated using the following formulae.
 
Yield per hectare
                                                (Anislag, 2021)
 
The land equivalent ratio (LER)-1 


Where,
Ycm= Yield of cabbage in intercropping.
Yc= Yield of sole cabbage.
Ymc= Yield of mulberry in intercropping.
Ym= Yield of sole mulberry.
 
Harvest index (HI%)


Benefit-cost ratio (B:C ratio)
 
Cost of cultivation (Ploughing, seeds, manure) and labour cost on different operations such as land preparation, cultivation, hoeing, weeding and harvesting were calculated based on the existing market price of inputs and labour wages prevalent in the study area. The gross return was calculated by multiplying the yield per ha by the farm gate price. Net return was estimated by deducting the cost of cultivation from the gross return. B:C ratio was calculated using the following formula:

 
Statistical analysis
 
The recorded data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) of randomized block design (RBD) to test the significance of the treatment effects and at a critical difference of 5% probability level using OPSTAT. Correlation between variable means was performed using R-4.3.2, 2023, to detect the relation between and within the cabbage data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Mulberry feedable leaf yield
 
The highest feedable leaf weight per ha (3207 kg ha-1) was recorded in T1 (S1 + Sole mulberry with PM amendment), followed by T2 (3150 kg ha-1) (Fig 2). Comparison between poultry manure-amended and non-amended treatments within each spacing level showed a consistent increase in feedable leaf weight due to PM application. At S1 spacing, PM increased feedable leaf weight by 57 kg ha-1, while increases of 24 kg ha-1 and 11 kg ha-1 were observed at S2 and S3 spacings, respectively.

Fig 2: Yield of silkworm feedable leaves of mulberry.


 
Cabbage
 
Plant height
 
Plant height differed significantly among treatments throughout the growing period (Table 1). At 30 DAT, the highest plant height (35.50 cm) was recorded in T7  (S3  + cabbage with manuring), followed by T8 (30.61 cm) and T1 (30.12 cm), while the lowest height (18.31 cm) was observed in T2 (sole cabbage without manuring). At 60 DAT, the maximum plant height was observed in T1 (28.22 cm), closely succeeded by T3 (28.11 cm), whereas T2 showed the lowest value (15.82 cm). At 90 DAT, the maximum plant height (31.78 cm) was observed in T3 (S1 + cabbage with manuring), followed by T1 (28.46 cm) and T5 (27.33 cm), while the lowest height was recorded in T2 (18.21 cm). The overall mean plant height was 27.8 cm, 22.3 cm, nd 252 cm at 30, 60 and 90 DAT, respectively.

Table 1: Effect of intercropping on growth characters of cabbage on different spacing levels of mulberry.


 
Number of non-wrapper leaves
 
The number of non-wrapper leaves also differed among treatments and observation periods. At 30 DAT, the highest number of wrapper leaves (13.67) was recorded in T7, followed by T1 (12.54) and T8 (12.33), whereas the lowest value (10.00) was found in T2. At 60 DAT, the maximum number of wrapper leaves was observed in T1 (12.00), while the lowest was recorded in T3 (10.06). At 90 DAT, the maximum number of wrapper leaves was found in T2‚ (13.54), followed by T8 (13.28) and T4 (13.00), whereas the minimum value (11.17) was observed in T7. The mean number of wrapper leaves at 30, 60 and 90 DAT was 11.6, 10.9 and 12.4, respectively.
 
Plant height (cm)
 
The highest plant height (29.44 cm) was recorded in T3  (S1 + cabbage with manuring), followed by T7 (28.17 cm) (Table 2). The lowest plant height (20.30 cm) was observed in T2  (sole cabbage without manuring). The vegetative growth phase had higher plant height than the harvest stage. Similarly, Nick (2000) and Jing et al. (2024) stated that when the cabbage.

Table 2: Effect of intercropping on growth characters of cabbage at maturity on different spacing levels of mulberry.


 
Number of outer leaves
 
The maximum number of outer leaves (13.00) was recorded in T6  (S2 + cabbage without manuring), followed by T1 (12.61). The minimum number of outer leaves (9.80) was observed in T1 (sole cabbage with manuring). Partial shading and competition for resources in intercropping systems often lead to more vegetative growth before head formation, resulting in a greater accumulation of non-wrapper leaves. Similar results were also found by Chatterjee et al., (2014) where cabbage showed improved vegetative growth and leaf biomass under organic nutrient management.
 
Head circumference (cm)
 
The maximum head circumference of 47.72 cm was seen in T7 (S3 + cabbage with fertilization), closely succeeded by T5  at 47.44 cm. The minimum head circumference (40.98 cm) was recorded in T2 (Sole cabbage without fertilization).
 
Percentage of number of marketable heads plot-1
 
Treatment with wider spacing with soil amendment (T7) recorded the maximum number of marketable heads followed by T1 (Sole cabbage with poultry amendment) while the control (T2) obtained lowest number of harvestable cabbage head with 89.286%. Poultry amendment cabbage plants (T2, T4, T6 and T8) growth parameters were significantly better than without amendment cabbage plants.
 
Mass of the head (kg plant-1)
 
The maximum head weight (1.827 kg) was recorded in T3  (S1 + cabbage with fertilization), signifying superior yield performance. The minimum head weight (0.631 kg) was recorded in T2 (cabbage grown without fertilization). From the observation, poultry treatments yielded greater head weights compared to their non-manured counterparts. Cabbage develops through rosette, folding and heading stages, during which growth gradually changes from leaf expansion to head formation (Liu et al., 2024). Before head initiation, leaf expansion is dominant, while assimilates are directed to head development (Hara, 1979). Similar observations were reported by Wien and Wurr (1997), who described cabbage head formation as a developmental stage marked by reduced stem elongation and increased accumulation of biomass within the head.
 
Yield (kg ha-1)
 
Cabbage grown in S1 spacing with poultry manuring (T3) obtained maximum yield per ha (57347.61kg ha-1) followed by sole cabbage with PM (T1, 55492 Kg ha-1). T4 recorded the lowest cabbage yield value with 37247.45 Kg ha-1 (Table 3). Maximum cabbage yield was observed in T3 (S1 + cabbage with manuring) indicating that improved nutrient availability enhanced vegetative growth and head development. Similar findings have been reported by Are et al., (2017).

Table 3: Effect of intercropping and different spacing levels of mulberry on cabbage yield characters.


 
Harvest index (%)
 
The highest non-wrapper leaf weight (22531.27 kg/ha) occurred in T3 (S1 + cabbage with manuring), while the lowest non-wrapper leaf weight (12495.97 kg/ha) occurred in T7 (S3  + cabbage with manuring). Wider mulberry spacing and poultry manuring increased the harvest index and reduced the proportion of biomass allocated to non-wrapper leaves.
 
Land equivalent ratio (LER)
 
The LER was significantly affected by mulberry spacing and poultry modification. The maximum LER (1.752) was recorded under S3T5, comparable to S3T4 (1.748), while the minimum LER (1.449) was found under S1T5. All intercropping treatments exhibited LER values exceeding one, demonstrating a distinct benefit of mulberry-cabbage intercropping compared to solitary cropping. Higher LER values at wider mulberry spacing demonstrate that reduced competition for light, moisture and nutrients allowed both component crops to utilize available resources more effectively. Similar findings were reported by Willey (1979), who stated that LER values above one indicates yield advantages in intercropping systems due to complementary resource utilization. Likewise, Lithourgidis et al., (2011) observed that intercropping systems improve overall productivity and land-use efficiency through better exploitation of environmental resources.
 
Benefit-cost ratio
 
Economic analysis proved that PM significantly enhanced the profitability of cabbage cultivation inside a mulberry-based intercropping system. Treatment T3  (S1 + cabbage with PM) yielded the better gross return (₹ 12,83,964.15 ha-1), net return (₹ 9,09,676.36 ha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (2.47), attributable to its exceptional cabbage output (₹ 57,347.61 kg ha-1). The beneficial effects of PM on cabbage growth and yield have also been documented by Adekiya and Agbede (2009), who recorded significant improvements in vegetative growth and yield of vegetable crops following organic nutrient application. Further, there were positive linear co-relations between yield verses Head circumference Fig 2(a), plant height Fig 2(b) and harvest index (%) and (d) LER Fig 2(c, d). LER showed the strongest positive relationship with yield (r2 = 0.42), followed by harvest index (r2 = 0.24) and plant height (r2 = 0.17). Head circumference exhibited only a weak association with yield (r2 = 0.038).
       
Yield showed positive correlations (Fig 3) with plant height, harvest index and LER, with the strongest relation observed for LER, indicating that resources-use efficiency contributed more to yield improvement than morphological traits.

Fig 3: Correlation of cabbage yield (kg/ha) with (a) Head circumference (cm), (b) Plant height (cm), (c) Harvest index (%) and (d) Land equivalent ratio.

CONCLUSION

The present research demonstrated that integrating poultry  manure with mulberry-cabbage intercropping improved crop productivity, land use efficiency and economic returns. Cabbage grown under the closest mulberry spacing with poultry manuring recorded maximum plant height, head weight and total yield which indicated the beneficial effect of organic nutrient supplementation on crop performance. Wider mulberry spacing improved head circumference, percentage of marketable heads, Harvest Index and Land Equivalent Ratio. This is a reflection of the reduced crop competition and efficient utilization of resources. Overall, the integrated mulberry-cabbage intercropping with PM is a sustainable and profitable production system and T3  is the most suitable treatment to maximize cabbage yield, while wider spacing treatments (T7 and T8) provided the greatest intercropping advantage in terms of resource-use efficiency.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge Mizoram University, Aizawl, for providing guidance and laboratory infrastructure to carry out the study.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
Not applicable.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES


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  6. Chatterjee, R., Bandyopadhyay, S. and Jana, J.C. (2014). Evaluation of vegetable wastes recycled for vermicomposting and its response on yield and quality of carrot (Daucus carota L.). International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture. 3(2): 60. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s40093-014-0060-4.

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    Full Research Article

    Influence of Poultry Manure Amendment and Different Tree Spacings on the Growth and Yield of Cabbage Intercrop with Mulberry

    A
    Aruna Devi Angom1
    0009-0001-8622-3904
    K
    Kalidas Upadhyaya1,*
    0000-0002-5922-8443
    J
    Jyoti Jopir1
    0009-0001-7320-1175
    1Department of Forestry, School of Earth Sciences and Natural Resources Management, Mizoram University, Tanhril, Aizwal-796 004, Mizoram, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Mulberry-based intercropping offers an effective approach to improve land productivity, resource-use efficiency and farm income in sericulture systems. Cabbage, a high-value winter vegetable, can be successfully integrated into mulberry plantations, while poultry manure (PM) serves as a sustainable nutrient source that enhances soil fertility and crop performance. However, information on the combined effects of mulberry spacing and PM on cabbage productivity under Northeast Indian conditions remains limited. To evaluate the effect of different mulberry spacing levels and PM amendment on the growth, yield, land-use efficiency and economic returns of cabbage in a mulberry-based intercropping system.

    Methods: The field experiment was conducted in a mulberry farm to study the effect of PM and different spacing levels of mulberry on the growth and yield of cabbage under mulberry based intercropping system.  Three different spacing levels of mulberry namely S1 (0.91 m × 1.22 m), S2 (0.91 m × 2.44 m) and S3 (0.91 m × 3.66 m) and sole cabbage under manured and non-manured conditions were evaluated in randomized block design (RBD) with three replications. Growth parameters of cabbage were recorded at 30, 60 and 90 days after transplanting (DAT), while yield attributes and productivity indices were assessed at harvest.

    Result: The highest plant height (29.44 cm), head weight (1.827 kg plant-1) and cabbage yield (57347.61 kg ha-1) was recorded by cabbage intercropped with mulberry at S1 spacing with PM amendment. Highest head circumference (47.72 cm) and the percentage of marketable heads (99.32%) was obtained in S3 spacing. Harvest index was 68.9% to 80.8% and all intercropping treatments had land equivalent ratio (LER) values greater than one (1.449-1.752), indicating better land-use efficiency. The highest LER (1.752) was recorded in S3 with PM.

    INTRODUCTION

    Sericulture is an economically important agro-based enterprise characterized by rapid returns and relatively low capital investment, making it an attractive livelihood option for smallholder farming systems (Vishaka et al., 2017). Since mulberry (Morus spp.) serves as the exclusive host plant for the silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), optimizing its cultivation is fundamental to sustainable silk production. The perennial nature of mulberry creates inter-row spaces that can be effectively utilized for intercropping, thereby improving land-use efficiency, resources utilization, farm income and the sustainability of sericulture-bases production system (Vishaka et al., 2016).
           
    Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) is an important winter vegetable in Eastern Himalayan region, where its productivity is often limited by severe pest and disease incidence, leading to considerable yield losses and reduced market value during peak harvest periods (Choudhuri, 2016). Integrating cabbage into mulberry plantations provides an opportunity to enhance resources use efficiency, diversity farm income and improve food and livelihood security while minimizing production risks (Addo-Quaye et al., 2011; Rafiqui et al., 2023). Intercropping also enhances agroecosystem diversity, suppresses insect pests and effectively reduces weed infestation in mulberry plantations by limiting weed growth (Rafiqui et al., 2023). Poultry manure is a nutrient-rich organic amendment that promotes soil fertility, nutrient availability and crop productivity and its composted form can be used to increase nutrient utilization efficiency and cabbage yield (Amanullah et al., 2019; Donbiaksiam et al., 2026). Sarangthem et al., (2011) reported that organic amendments improve cabbage productivity and nutrient uptake while enhancing soil fertility.
           
    Farmers increasingly adopt intercropping system as it increases total crop output per unit area and offer protection against total crop failure (Lyocks et al., 2013; Lalhmangaihzuali et al., 2025). However, information on the combined influence of mulberry spacing and PM amendment on cabbage performance under mulberry-based intercropping systems, particularly under the agro-climatic conditions of Northeast India, remains limited. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different mulberry spacing levels and PM amendment on the growth, yield, land-use efficiency and economic returns of cabbage grown in a mulberry-based intercropping system.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The experiment was conducted during the winter season of 2022-2024 at six-year-old farmer’s field located at Phayeng village of Manipur, with a latitude of 24°50′48"N, longitude of 93°48′57.3"E at 813 m above sea level. The study was carried out under the supervision of the Department of Forestry, Mizoram University, Aizawl. The site has a subtropical climate, with mean annual precipitation of 1187.80 mm (Weather Station - Phayeng, Directorate of Environment and Climate Change). The average maximum temperature recorded in May was 37.2°C, while the average minimum temperature in January was 3.8°C. Three different levels of mulberry spacing (S1 = 0.91 m × 1.22 m; S2 = 0.91 m × 2.44 m and S3 = 0.91 m × 3.66 m) were selected for the intercropping of cabbage and the experimental plot was laid out in an RBD with three replications. Cabbage seeds (Var. Green hero) were broadcast on a nursery tray and the seedlings were transplanted after 6 weeks of nursing and when they attained an average height of 12 cm with 6 leaves (Choudhary et al., 2009) with 60 cm inter- and intra-spacing between the rows of mulberry (Fig 1). PM was applied 15 days before transplanting for equilibration. After transplanting, all recommended agronomic practices were followed throughout the experiment. The treatments used were:
    T1- Sole cabbage + poultry manure.
    T2- Sole cabbage.
    T3- S1 + cabbage + poultry manure.
    T4- S1 + cabbage.
    T5- S2 + cabbage + poultry manure.
    T6- S2 + cabbage.
    T7- S3 + cabbage + poultry manure.
    T8- S3 + cabbage.

    Fig 1: Growth and harvesting of cabbage under mulberry intercropping with different levels of spacing.


           
    Growth parameters (Plant height and days to head formation) at 30, 60 and 90 days after transplanting (DAT) while head circumference, marketable head weight, outer leaf number and yield were recorded at harvest on six randomly selected sample plants per plot and the mean values were recorded.
           
    Mulberry was also grown as a sole crop under the three spacing (S1, S2, S3) levels with and without PM to calculate the land equivalent ratio (LER). Feedable leaf yield were recorded 90 days after pruning for both sole and intercropped mulberry. The yield of cabbage per hectare, LER and harvest index were calculated using the following formulae.
     
    Yield per hectare
                                                    (Anislag, 2021)
     
    The land equivalent ratio (LER)-1 


    Where,
    Ycm= Yield of cabbage in intercropping.
    Yc= Yield of sole cabbage.
    Ymc= Yield of mulberry in intercropping.
    Ym= Yield of sole mulberry.
     
    Harvest index (HI%)


    Benefit-cost ratio (B:C ratio)
     
    Cost of cultivation (Ploughing, seeds, manure) and labour cost on different operations such as land preparation, cultivation, hoeing, weeding and harvesting were calculated based on the existing market price of inputs and labour wages prevalent in the study area. The gross return was calculated by multiplying the yield per ha by the farm gate price. Net return was estimated by deducting the cost of cultivation from the gross return. B:C ratio was calculated using the following formula:

     
    Statistical analysis
     
    The recorded data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) of randomized block design (RBD) to test the significance of the treatment effects and at a critical difference of 5% probability level using OPSTAT. Correlation between variable means was performed using R-4.3.2, 2023, to detect the relation between and within the cabbage data.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Mulberry feedable leaf yield
     
    The highest feedable leaf weight per ha (3207 kg ha-1) was recorded in T1 (S1 + Sole mulberry with PM amendment), followed by T2 (3150 kg ha-1) (Fig 2). Comparison between poultry manure-amended and non-amended treatments within each spacing level showed a consistent increase in feedable leaf weight due to PM application. At S1 spacing, PM increased feedable leaf weight by 57 kg ha-1, while increases of 24 kg ha-1 and 11 kg ha-1 were observed at S2 and S3 spacings, respectively.

    Fig 2: Yield of silkworm feedable leaves of mulberry.


     
    Cabbage
     
    Plant height
     
    Plant height differed significantly among treatments throughout the growing period (Table 1). At 30 DAT, the highest plant height (35.50 cm) was recorded in T7  (S3  + cabbage with manuring), followed by T8 (30.61 cm) and T1 (30.12 cm), while the lowest height (18.31 cm) was observed in T2 (sole cabbage without manuring). At 60 DAT, the maximum plant height was observed in T1 (28.22 cm), closely succeeded by T3 (28.11 cm), whereas T2 showed the lowest value (15.82 cm). At 90 DAT, the maximum plant height (31.78 cm) was observed in T3 (S1 + cabbage with manuring), followed by T1 (28.46 cm) and T5 (27.33 cm), while the lowest height was recorded in T2 (18.21 cm). The overall mean plant height was 27.8 cm, 22.3 cm, nd 252 cm at 30, 60 and 90 DAT, respectively.

    Table 1: Effect of intercropping on growth characters of cabbage on different spacing levels of mulberry.


     
    Number of non-wrapper leaves
     
    The number of non-wrapper leaves also differed among treatments and observation periods. At 30 DAT, the highest number of wrapper leaves (13.67) was recorded in T7, followed by T1 (12.54) and T8 (12.33), whereas the lowest value (10.00) was found in T2. At 60 DAT, the maximum number of wrapper leaves was observed in T1 (12.00), while the lowest was recorded in T3 (10.06). At 90 DAT, the maximum number of wrapper leaves was found in T2‚ (13.54), followed by T8 (13.28) and T4 (13.00), whereas the minimum value (11.17) was observed in T7. The mean number of wrapper leaves at 30, 60 and 90 DAT was 11.6, 10.9 and 12.4, respectively.
     
    Plant height (cm)
     
    The highest plant height (29.44 cm) was recorded in T3  (S1 + cabbage with manuring), followed by T7 (28.17 cm) (Table 2). The lowest plant height (20.30 cm) was observed in T2  (sole cabbage without manuring). The vegetative growth phase had higher plant height than the harvest stage. Similarly, Nick (2000) and Jing et al. (2024) stated that when the cabbage.

    Table 2: Effect of intercropping on growth characters of cabbage at maturity on different spacing levels of mulberry.


     
    Number of outer leaves
     
    The maximum number of outer leaves (13.00) was recorded in T6  (S2 + cabbage without manuring), followed by T1 (12.61). The minimum number of outer leaves (9.80) was observed in T1 (sole cabbage with manuring). Partial shading and competition for resources in intercropping systems often lead to more vegetative growth before head formation, resulting in a greater accumulation of non-wrapper leaves. Similar results were also found by Chatterjee et al., (2014) where cabbage showed improved vegetative growth and leaf biomass under organic nutrient management.
     
    Head circumference (cm)
     
    The maximum head circumference of 47.72 cm was seen in T7 (S3 + cabbage with fertilization), closely succeeded by T5  at 47.44 cm. The minimum head circumference (40.98 cm) was recorded in T2 (Sole cabbage without fertilization).
     
    Percentage of number of marketable heads plot-1
     
    Treatment with wider spacing with soil amendment (T7) recorded the maximum number of marketable heads followed by T1 (Sole cabbage with poultry amendment) while the control (T2) obtained lowest number of harvestable cabbage head with 89.286%. Poultry amendment cabbage plants (T2, T4, T6 and T8) growth parameters were significantly better than without amendment cabbage plants.
     
    Mass of the head (kg plant-1)
     
    The maximum head weight (1.827 kg) was recorded in T3  (S1 + cabbage with fertilization), signifying superior yield performance. The minimum head weight (0.631 kg) was recorded in T2 (cabbage grown without fertilization). From the observation, poultry treatments yielded greater head weights compared to their non-manured counterparts. Cabbage develops through rosette, folding and heading stages, during which growth gradually changes from leaf expansion to head formation (Liu et al., 2024). Before head initiation, leaf expansion is dominant, while assimilates are directed to head development (Hara, 1979). Similar observations were reported by Wien and Wurr (1997), who described cabbage head formation as a developmental stage marked by reduced stem elongation and increased accumulation of biomass within the head.
     
    Yield (kg ha-1)
     
    Cabbage grown in S1 spacing with poultry manuring (T3) obtained maximum yield per ha (57347.61kg ha-1) followed by sole cabbage with PM (T1, 55492 Kg ha-1). T4 recorded the lowest cabbage yield value with 37247.45 Kg ha-1 (Table 3). Maximum cabbage yield was observed in T3 (S1 + cabbage with manuring) indicating that improved nutrient availability enhanced vegetative growth and head development. Similar findings have been reported by Are et al., (2017).

    Table 3: Effect of intercropping and different spacing levels of mulberry on cabbage yield characters.


     
    Harvest index (%)
     
    The highest non-wrapper leaf weight (22531.27 kg/ha) occurred in T3 (S1 + cabbage with manuring), while the lowest non-wrapper leaf weight (12495.97 kg/ha) occurred in T7 (S3  + cabbage with manuring). Wider mulberry spacing and poultry manuring increased the harvest index and reduced the proportion of biomass allocated to non-wrapper leaves.
     
    Land equivalent ratio (LER)
     
    The LER was significantly affected by mulberry spacing and poultry modification. The maximum LER (1.752) was recorded under S3T5, comparable to S3T4 (1.748), while the minimum LER (1.449) was found under S1T5. All intercropping treatments exhibited LER values exceeding one, demonstrating a distinct benefit of mulberry-cabbage intercropping compared to solitary cropping. Higher LER values at wider mulberry spacing demonstrate that reduced competition for light, moisture and nutrients allowed both component crops to utilize available resources more effectively. Similar findings were reported by Willey (1979), who stated that LER values above one indicates yield advantages in intercropping systems due to complementary resource utilization. Likewise, Lithourgidis et al., (2011) observed that intercropping systems improve overall productivity and land-use efficiency through better exploitation of environmental resources.
     
    Benefit-cost ratio
     
    Economic analysis proved that PM significantly enhanced the profitability of cabbage cultivation inside a mulberry-based intercropping system. Treatment T3  (S1 + cabbage with PM) yielded the better gross return (₹ 12,83,964.15 ha-1), net return (₹ 9,09,676.36 ha-1) and benefit-cost ratio (2.47), attributable to its exceptional cabbage output (₹ 57,347.61 kg ha-1). The beneficial effects of PM on cabbage growth and yield have also been documented by Adekiya and Agbede (2009), who recorded significant improvements in vegetative growth and yield of vegetable crops following organic nutrient application. Further, there were positive linear co-relations between yield verses Head circumference Fig 2(a), plant height Fig 2(b) and harvest index (%) and (d) LER Fig 2(c, d). LER showed the strongest positive relationship with yield (r2 = 0.42), followed by harvest index (r2 = 0.24) and plant height (r2 = 0.17). Head circumference exhibited only a weak association with yield (r2 = 0.038).
           
    Yield showed positive correlations (Fig 3) with plant height, harvest index and LER, with the strongest relation observed for LER, indicating that resources-use efficiency contributed more to yield improvement than morphological traits.

    Fig 3: Correlation of cabbage yield (kg/ha) with (a) Head circumference (cm), (b) Plant height (cm), (c) Harvest index (%) and (d) Land equivalent ratio.

    CONCLUSION

    The present research demonstrated that integrating poultry  manure with mulberry-cabbage intercropping improved crop productivity, land use efficiency and economic returns. Cabbage grown under the closest mulberry spacing with poultry manuring recorded maximum plant height, head weight and total yield which indicated the beneficial effect of organic nutrient supplementation on crop performance. Wider mulberry spacing improved head circumference, percentage of marketable heads, Harvest Index and Land Equivalent Ratio. This is a reflection of the reduced crop competition and efficient utilization of resources. Overall, the integrated mulberry-cabbage intercropping with PM is a sustainable and profitable production system and T3  is the most suitable treatment to maximize cabbage yield, while wider spacing treatments (T7 and T8) provided the greatest intercropping advantage in terms of resource-use efficiency.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors acknowledge Mizoram University, Aizawl, for providing guidance and laboratory infrastructure to carry out the study.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    Not applicable.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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