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Current IssueSpecial IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Seasonal Occurrence of Major Insect Pests of Paddy in India: A Review

J
Jhansi Hima Varsha Valluri1,*
M
M. Gayathri1
D
Dolpriya Devi Manoharmayum2
1Department of Entomology, K L College of Agriculture, KLEF, Greenfields, Vaddeswaram, Guntur-522 302, Andhra Pradesh, India.
2Department of Plant Pathology, K L College of Agriculture, KLEF, Greenfields, Vaddeswaram, Guntur-522 302, Andhra Pradesh, India.

ABSTRACT

India’s diverse agro-climatic zones create favorable conditions for the seasonal occurrence of insect pests in paddy. Climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and rainfall strongly influence pest population dynamics. This review synthesizes published literature on the temporal patterns of major paddy pests, including yellow stem borer, brown planthopper, white-backed planthopper, leaf folder, gall midge and armyworm, across different regions of India. Emphasis was placed on climatic influences, geographical variation, crop-pest interactions and forecasting approaches. Findings indicate that pest incidence is closely linked to climatic variability, with significant regional differences in pest prevalence. Forecasting models play a key role in predicting outbreaks and enabling timely management. Climate change is likely to shift pest distribution and increase infestation risks. Understanding these patterns is essential for implementing effective, timely integrated pest management strategies aligned with cropping calendars to minimize losses and enhance sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is the primary sector of Indian economy which contributes a major share to national income. India has been an agricultural nation with a net sown area of 66.33 million hectares (Mha) nationally and 5.88 Mha in Andhra Pradesh state, where most of the population was involved in agriculture (Indiastat, 2025). Food security, the task of feeding people has been the first precedence factor that makes agriculture significant since olden times. With the increase in population from 43.92 crores in 1961 to 121 crores in 2011 (MoS and PI, 2018) there has been an increased demand for food products nationally. There was an increased estimated demand of 93.99 to 117.56 million tonnes (MT) from 2011-12 to 2029-30 in case of food grains in India according to MoA and FW (2012).
       
Rice, Oryza sativa (Poaceae) was the major and staple food grain consumed by majority of people in India with a per capita net availability of 73.4 kg per year i.e., 201 g/person/day. The nutritional content differs from rice varieties, but on an average 100 grams of cooked rice provides 130 kcal of energy, 2.58 g of protein, 0.9 g of lipid, 28.73 g of carbohydrates and 1.8 g of fibre (Verma and Shukla, 2011). India ranks second among world countries next to China in rice production. During 2019-20, 5056280 metric tonnes (mT) of non-basmati rice of worth Rs. 14400.32 crores was exported from India (Indiastat, 2021). Nationally, the area under cultivation and productivity of rice significantly increased from 30.5 Mha and 771 kg ha-1 during 1949-50 to 51.3 Mha and 2929 kg ha-1 in 2024-25, respectively. Likewise, production also flared up from 23.5 MT in 1949-50 to 150 MT during 2024-25 (MoA and FW, 2025).
       
The major insect pests of economic importance in rice were, yellow stem borer (YSB) (Scirpophaga incertulas Walker), brown planthopper (BPH) (Nilaparvata lugens Stal), white backed planthopper (WBPH) (Sogatella furcifera Horváth), leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenée), gall midge (Orseolia oryzae wood-mason), rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera Oliver), army worm (Mythimna separata Walker), green leafhopper (Nephotettix virescens), etc., non insect pests like panicle mite (Stenotarsonemus spinki Smiley) also cause some damage of economic importance.
       
It was estimated that more than hundred species of insects feed on rice and cause severe damage (Muralidharan and Pasalu, 2006). Some insects significantly damage the rice growth and yield which were considered as major pests of rice and were predominantly important (Nathan, 2015). Approximately 52% of global rice production is lost each year due to biotic stress factors, of which 21 per cent is attributed by the attack of major insect pests (Yarasi et al., 2008). A critical examination of rice insect pests over the past 52 years (1965-2017) revealed a gradual increase in pest numbers, which show that there was always an addition of insect pests every 5 or 10 years, with the previous pest still a source of concern (Jena et al., 2018). Over the past 50-60 years in India, the composition of major rice pests has shifted with changes in cultivation practices and ecology. During the 1960s-1970s (early Green Revolution), stem borers, gall midge and green leafhopper were the dominant pests due to the introduction of high-yielding varieties and irrigation, as documented by IRRI. In the 1980s, brown planthopper emerged as a major pest along with stem borers and gall midge, largely because of insecticide-induced resurgence, a phenomenon well described in Heinrichs (1995). By the 1990s, leaf folder became increasingly important alongside stem borers and planthoppers, while pests like hispa and caseworm gained localized significance, as reported by Pathak and Khan (1994). In the 2000s, the major pest complex included stem borers, brown planthopper, leaf folder, and gall midge, with occasional outbreaks of earhead bug and swarming caterpillar, and greater emphasis was placed on IPM strategies by organizations like Food and Agriculture Organization 2008. From the 2010s to the present, the major pests include stem borers, brown and white-backed planthoppers, leaf folder, gall midge, and green leafhopper, while pests such as hispa and caseworm remain region-specific; these shifts are linked to climate change, pesticide resistance, and intensified cropping, as noted by recent reviews. Overall, although more than 100 insect species attack rice, only a small group becomes major at any given time, and this status changes with agricultural and environmental conditions. Based on the report “integrated pest management package for rice” issued by NCIPM in 2014, yellow stem borer, Planthoppers viz., Brown planthopper and white backed planthopper, leaf folder, gall midge and gundhi bug were considered as major insect pests of national significance in India.
       
Further, climate change will have an impact on insect behaviour, distribution, and abundance, as indicated by an increase in the number of generations per year, higher winter survival rates, and the earlier appearance of the majority of insects (Shelke et al., 2025; Antanu et al., 2023; Sunitha devi and Varma, 2022; Patel and Singh, 2017 and Singh et al., 2012). Meteorological factors influence seasonal abundance, distribution, and population growth of an insect as reported by Sarkar et al., (2024) and Pandey et al., (2001). Planthopper, armyworm and root weevil population build up was favoured under hot, dry and clear sky conditions. Whereas, leaf folder, stem borer and hispa population build up was favoured under wet, humid and cloudy weather conditions (Butter and Singh, 2005; Singh et al., 2007 and Singh et al., 2012).
 
Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas, (Walker) (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)
 
YSB was the most predominant and serious pest in rice growing tracts of India and South-East Asian countries (Islam, 1996; Banerjee and Pramanik, 1967 and Chelliah and Bentur, 1989). Stem  borer larvae feed on stems of  all stages of the crop and leads to death of tiller i.e., dead heart at vegetative stage and white ear at reproductive stage (Karthikeyan and Purushothaman, 2000; Banding and Listsinger, 2005; Mishra et al., 2005; Muralidharan and Pasalu, 2006; Kadke and Patel, 2014; Rahaman et al., 2014; Manikandan et al., 2016 and Annamalai et al., 2018). Based on 770 experimental units from 28 years coordinated data, Muralidharan and Pasalu (2006) reported yield loss of 2.5%, 4.0% and 6.4% respectively due to 1% dead heart, 1% white ear and 1% both phases of stem borer damage. About 10-60% of yield loss could be occurred due to YSB infestation on rice (Chelliah and Bentur, 1989; Chatterjee and Mondal, 2014). Maximum temperature of 35°C, minimum temperature of 17°C, optimum temperature of 24-29°C, relative humidity of 90-100% and 14.5 to 16 hours of sunshine were the climate normal for stem borer of rice (Singh et al., 2012). The relationship between weather parameters and the damage caused by Scirpophaga incertulas exhibits considerable variability, reflecting complex pest-climate interactions across regions and cropping seasons. Maximum temperature generally shows weak to moderate correlations with damage indicators such as dead hearts (DH) and white ears (WE), with both positive and negative trends reported, often non-significant (Hugar et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2015; Baskaran et al., 2017; Rana et al., 2017; Patel and Singh, 2017; Devendra et al., 2018; Jasrotia et al., 2019; Sawai and Kothikar, 2019; Shilpa et al., 2020; Nikhil et al., 2021; Devi and Varma, 2022). While some studies observed significant positive associations (Baskaran et al., 2019), others reported significant negative correlations (Baskaran et al., 2017), suggesting that extreme heat may either stimulate pest activity or cause physiological stress, depending on local microclimatic and varietal contexts. Minimum temperature similarly shows context-dependent effects; significant negative correlations were reported for both DH and WE in several studies (Patel and Singh, 2017), whereas positive correlations were observed in others, particularly for moth populations and adult emergence (Kumar et al., 2015; Nag et al., 2018; Appalanaidu et al., 2021), highlighting the role of night-time temperature in regulating developmental rates and survival. Rainfall largely exhibits negative correlations with damage (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Baskaran et al., 2017; Patel and Singh, 2017), consistent with the hypothesis that high precipitation can physically wash off eggs and larvae or reduce oviposition sites; however, positive correlations in some cases (Hugar et al., 2010; Kadke and Patel, 2014; Shilpa et al., 2020) suggest that moderate rainfall may enhance plant growth and create favourable microhabitats for pest development. Relative humidity shows generally weak correlations, with occasional significant positive and negative associations (Baskaran et al., 2017; Baskaran et al., 2019), indicating that diurnal and seasonal variation in humidity interacts with other climatic factors to influence pest behaviour, egg viability and larval survival. The available literature on the seasonal incidence of S. incertulas was presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Review of literature on seasonal incidence of Scirpophaga incertulas in rice ecosystem.



Rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee) (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)
 
Rice leaf folder, was regarded as a pest of economic importance in rice ecosystem (Dhaliwal et al., 2007, Chakraborty and Deb 2011, Singh et al., 2017). This was earlier considered as a minor pest, but assumed the status of major pest from 1980 onwards (Nanda et al., 2000) due to excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers and misuse of insecticides were attributed as the causes of this minor pest gaining major pest status (Dhaliwal et al., 1979; Bautista et al., 1984; Gunathilagaraj and Gopalan, 1986; Maragesan and Chelliah, 1987 and Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999). Leaf folder larvae stitches the leaf edges longitudinally and feed voraciously on green foliage, resulting in papery dry leaves (Chatterjee, 1979 and Tiwari et al., 2021), stunting, curling or yellowing of the green foliage (Mishra et al., 1998). The yield loss due to leaf folder accounts for 10 to 30 per cent (Kulgagod et al., 2011 and Saikia and Saikia, 1999), but during an epidemic situation yield loss of 30 to 80 per cent could be occurred (Kushwaha and Singh, 1986; Nanda and Bisoi, 1990 and Rani et al., 2007).
       
The interaction of weather parameters with Cnaphalocrocis medinalis incidence and leaf damage demonstrates complex, often inconsistent patterns across studies, reflecting the pest’s ecological plasticity. Maximum temperature exhibits both positive and negative associations with moth abundance and leaf damage, with correlations ranging from strongly negative (e.g., Singh et al., 2017; Gajjar et al., 2017) to strongly positive (e.g., Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Meena et al., 2018), indicating that moderate temperatures may favour larval development and adult activity, whereas extremes can suppress feeding or increase mortality. Minimum temperature similarly displays variable effects; significant negative correlations for moths and leaf damage have been reported (Singh et al., 2017; Patel et al., 2011), while some studies show significant positive associations (Thokchom et al., 2018; Saikia et al., 2019), suggesting that night-time temperatures critically modulate pupal development and adult emergence. Rainfall largely shows a dual influence: Excessive precipitation negatively affects moth activity and leaf damage (Shyamrao and Raghuraman, 2019; Chatterjee et al., 2021), likely due to larval wash-off or egg mortality, whereas moderate rainfall appears to enhance foliage quality and microclimatic conditions conducive to larval feeding (Gajjar et al., 2017; Saikia et al., 2019). Relative humidity, both morning and evening, generally correlates positively with larval growth and leaf damage under certain conditions (Sharma et al., 2018; Thokchom et al., 2018; Gajjar et al., 2017), but can also show negative associations (Shyamrao and Raghuraman, 2019; Chatterjee et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2019), indicating that extremes of moisture may hinder pest activity or promote fungal pathogens affecting larvae. Overall, these findings underscore the highly context-dependent influence of climatic variables on C. medinalis, with interactions between temperature, humidity, and rainfall shaping pest phenology and feeding intensity. Under favourable climatic conditions leaf folder affects the crop adversely resulting in severe losses (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999 and Patnaik, 2001). Insect physiology is directly affected by abiotic factors (Kennedy and Storer, 2000 and Ramya, 2012) and indirectly by host plant conditions. The available literature on seasonal incidence of C. medinalis was presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Review of literature on seasonal incidence of C. medinalis in rice ecosystem.


 
Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stal) (Delphacidae: Hemiptera)
 
BPH was a pest of minor importance till mid-sixties, later in 1970’s assumed the most destructive pest status with first serious epidemic in 1973 resulting in 10-70% yield loss (Krishnaiah and Varma, 2012). Series of epidemics since then were recorded in Krishna and Godavari deltas of Andhra Pradesh from 1976-1983 and also Karnataka (1975 and 1958); Telangana (1980); Madhya Pradesh (1976) and Tamil Nadu (1977 and 1982); (Rao et al., 1976 and Krishnaiah, 1993). BPH is the monophagous and tiny insect where nymphs and adults feeds on the phloem tissue of the rice plant which dries the plant and leads to hopper burn symptom (Sogawa, 1992; Turner et al., 1999., Rao et al., 2003; Chaudary et al., 2014). In the current context, global climate change is a reality, and adverse climate changes have a positive impact on insect populations, particularly phloem sucking insects like BPH (IPCC, 2007; Pandi  et al., 2018; Vailla et al., 2019 and Chittibabu et al., 2020). Optimum temperature of 28-30°C and 85% relative humidity favours the build of the pest (Singh et al., 2012).The available literature on seasonal incidence of N. lugens was presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Review of literature on seasonal incidence of Nilaparvata lugens in rice ecosystem.


       
The relationship between weather variables and Nilaparvata lugens populations demonstrates considerable variability, highlighting the pest’s sensitivity to both thermal and moisture regimes. Maximum temperature shows both significant positive correlations (e.g., Chittibabu et al., 2020; Deshmukh et al., 2021; Mohanta et al., 2020) and non-significant negative associations (e.g., Kumar et al., 2017; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), suggesting that moderate warming may stimulate adult activity and oviposition, whereas extreme heat may inhibit survival or alter dispersal behaviour. Minimum temperature generally exhibits a negative relationship with pest incidence in several studies (Nirala et al., 2015b; Kumar et al., 2017; Deshmukh et al., 2021), reflecting delayed development and lower nymphal survival under cooler night-time temperatures; however, occasional positive correlations (Mohanta et al., 2020) indicate site-specific responses influenced by local varietal susceptibility and seasonal microclimate. Rainfall effects are similarly inconsistent: while some studies report significant positive correlations (Chaudhary et al., 2014; Chittibabu et al., 2020; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), likely due to enhanced humidity and plant vigour facilitating nymph development, others demonstrate negative or non-significant associations (Kumar et al., 2017; Deshmukh et al., 2021), potentially reflecting larval wash-off, reduced egg viability, or disruption of feeding sites. Relative humidity, though less frequently studied, appears to exert weak but variable effects, with both positive (Chaudhary et al., 2014) and negative (Mohanta et al., 2020) correlations, indicating that optimal moisture levels support pest proliferation while extremes may induce stress or favor natural enemies.
 
White backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera Horvath) (Delphacidae: Hemiptera)
 
WBPH is a major sucking pest of rice in many rice-growing regions of India. Before 1991, WBPH was mostly restricted to northern states such as Punjab and Haryana. However, after 1995, WBPH began infesting rice crops in southern states in BPH, causing near-devastation in some years (Panda and Khush, 1995; Krishnaiah et al., 2002 and Krishnaiah et al., 2008). Both nymphs and adults feed on the phloem tissue of the rice plant resulting in drying of the plants and also transmit certain viral diseases (Krishnaiah et al., 2002 and Nirala et al., 2015b). Like BPH, favourable conditions for flare up of the pest were maximum temperature of 33°C, minimum temperature of 25°C and 85% relative humidity as reported by Singh et al., (2012).
 
Green leafhopper (Nephotettix virescens distant and Nephotettix nigropictus Stal) (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
 
These two species of leafhoppers were most common in India, where both nymphs and adults suck sap from the phloem (Mohanta et al., 2020). Direct damage by these leafhoppers seldom causes economic loss, but rice tungro virus (RTV) transmitted by them cause extensive damage. Huge loss due to RTV occurred in in Andhra Pradesh during 1984 for the first time and again during kharif 1990, in East and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh (Krishnaiah and Varma, 2012).
       
The population dynamics of Nephotettix spp. appear to be strongly influenced by weather parameters, although the strength and direction of these associations vary across studies and locations. Maximum temperature generally shows weak, non-significant correlations with pest abundance, with both positive and negative trends reported (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018; Mohanta et al., 2020; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), suggesting that extreme heat may not be a primary limiting factor for pest proliferation. In contrast, minimum temperature is often negatively correlated, with some studies reporting significant effects (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Meena et al., 2018), implying that lower night-time temperatures may suppress pest activity or survival. Relative humidity exhibits contrasting effects depending on the time of day: morning relative humidity generally shows a positive association (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018), which may facilitate feeding and reproduction, whereas evening relative humidity is more variable, showing both significant positive and negative correlations (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018; Mohanta et al., 2020; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), likely reflecting diurnal behavioral patterns and microclimatic fluctuations. Rainfall predominantly exhibits negative correlations with Nephotettix spp. abundance (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017), though Meena et al., (2018) observed positive associations in some contexts, highlighting that rainfall may influence populations both directly, through mortality or dispersal, and indirectly, via host plant conditions.
 
Gall midge [Orseolia oryzae (Wood-mason)] (Cecid omyiidae: Diptera)
 
The rice gall midge is one of the major insect pests of rice (Mardi et al., 2009), and had several epidemics in India during the years 1971, 1976, 1978, 1980 and 1982 (Shrivastava, et al., 1987). In 1986, gall midge severely damaged rice crops in north-eastern Andhra Pradesh (Bentur et al., 1987). A serious outbreak of gall midge occurred in the West Godavari district, of Andhra Pradesh in 1989 (Rao and Rao, 1989). The gall midge larva attacks rice from nursery to the end of tillering stage and early infestation results in gall formation from the tillers which consequently do not bear panicles (Mardi et al., 2009). The seasonal incidence of rice gall midge fluctuates with prevailing weather conditions from year to year (Gopalkrishnan et al., 1954; Patel et al., 1957; Prakasarao et al., 1971a and Saroja, 1982). Bentur et al., 1987 reported that pest buildup was favored by high rainfall (410 mm) in late June to mid Aug, and frequent cyclonic storms in Sep and Oct, which in cloudy and humid periods.
       
Hegdekatti (1972) reported the activity of the pest in August; whereas, Patel and Bowmik (1987) reported it in the first or second week of July. Shrivastava et al.  (1987) revealed that the major active season of the pest was from 36th to 43rd SMW with two peaks; one in 38th SMW and the other in 42nd SMW during kharif season. The peak activity of the pest was observed during October by Hidaka et al., (1977) and Sain and Kalode (1992). In Telangana, Sain and Kalode (1992) reported the activity of the pest from late August, reaching peak during October and declined by December. Mardi et al., (2009) reported the incidence of rice gall midge on grasses from second week of July to second week of September with major active period on the main crop in fourth week of September i.e., 39th SMW (Srivastava  et al., 1987).
 
Rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera Oliver) (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)
 
Rice hispa, earlier known to be a sporadic insect-pest of paddy, has assumed the status of major pest in many rice growing regions of the country (Deka et al., 1999; Rahman and Rahman, 2001; Polaszek et al., 2002; Islam et al., 2004; Hazarika et al., 2005; Bhattacharjee and Ray, 2010 and Chakraborty and Deb, 2012). Activity of the pest was recorded in Andhra Pradesh (Rao, 1977) and covers almost all the crop growing seasons (Prakasarao et al., 1971a and Budhraja et al., 1979). Outbreak of this pest was reported from Himachal Pradesh for the last few years limiting the production and productivity of rice (Choudhary et al., 2001 and Sharma et al., 2012). It causes extensive damage to the vegetative stage of the crop resulting in 28% (Nath and Dutta, 2002), 35-65 per cent loss in yield (Rajek et al., 1986 and Hazarika and Dutta, 1991) and in endemic areas of the pest, upto 100% crop loss can be seen in certain cases (Islam et al., 2004).
       
Sharma et al., (2018) revealed that the adults of rice hispa started infesting the paddy crop early in the season at 26th SMW and continued till the crop maturity i.e., 40th to 44th SMW; whereas, the grub incidence was reported from 28th to 39th SMW. Chakraborthy and Deb (2012) reported that highest number of individuals were found during 36th SMW and maximum temperatures and high humidity are conducive to hispa population growth and multiplication which shows that high winter humidity and summer temperatures tend to have higher hispa abundance.
       
Prakasarao et al., (1971b) had mentioned that unusual high rainfall in August-September favoured the pest out-break. Rao (1977) from Andhra Pradesh have reported an incursion of hispa at high humidity following heavy rain and during “intermittent bright sunshine”. Thakur et al., (1979) have documented that hispa incidence is associated with maximum temperature and relative humidity. Choudhary et al., (2001) have reported that the pest started to appear as early as second fortnight of May and remain active on the paddy till to the second week of November.

CONCLUSION

 In India, the seasonal presence of insect pests is closely related to cropping patterns, shifting weather conditions, and the country’s varied agro-climatic conditions. It is essential to comprehend these temporal dynamics in order to forecast pest outbreaks and put timely management measures in place. This study emphasizes the need of climate-sensitive pest management strategies and the increasing demand for research that are relevant to a given region, real-time surveillance and predictive modeling. Proactive measures like integrated pest management (IPM), in conjunction with technology advancements and farmer education, are crucial to preserving crop yields and guaranteeing agricultural sustainability when climate change changes conventional pest patterns. Minimizing pest-related losses in the face of changing environmental challenges will require ongoing research and cooperation between farmers, agricultural institutions and meteorological services.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the completion of this review article. We acknowledge the valuable insights gained from previously published research works and thank the academic community for their continuous contributions to this field.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarilyrepresent the views of their affiliated institutions.
 
Informed consent
 
Not applicable. This article is a review of previously published studies and does not involve animal participants.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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    Review Article

    Seasonal Occurrence of Major Insect Pests of Paddy in India: A Review

    J
    Jhansi Hima Varsha Valluri1,*
    M
    M. Gayathri1
    D
    Dolpriya Devi Manoharmayum2
    1Department of Entomology, K L College of Agriculture, KLEF, Greenfields, Vaddeswaram, Guntur-522 302, Andhra Pradesh, India.
    2Department of Plant Pathology, K L College of Agriculture, KLEF, Greenfields, Vaddeswaram, Guntur-522 302, Andhra Pradesh, India.

    ABSTRACT

    India’s diverse agro-climatic zones create favorable conditions for the seasonal occurrence of insect pests in paddy. Climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and rainfall strongly influence pest population dynamics. This review synthesizes published literature on the temporal patterns of major paddy pests, including yellow stem borer, brown planthopper, white-backed planthopper, leaf folder, gall midge and armyworm, across different regions of India. Emphasis was placed on climatic influences, geographical variation, crop-pest interactions and forecasting approaches. Findings indicate that pest incidence is closely linked to climatic variability, with significant regional differences in pest prevalence. Forecasting models play a key role in predicting outbreaks and enabling timely management. Climate change is likely to shift pest distribution and increase infestation risks. Understanding these patterns is essential for implementing effective, timely integrated pest management strategies aligned with cropping calendars to minimize losses and enhance sustainability.

    INTRODUCTION

    Agriculture is the primary sector of Indian economy which contributes a major share to national income. India has been an agricultural nation with a net sown area of 66.33 million hectares (Mha) nationally and 5.88 Mha in Andhra Pradesh state, where most of the population was involved in agriculture (Indiastat, 2025). Food security, the task of feeding people has been the first precedence factor that makes agriculture significant since olden times. With the increase in population from 43.92 crores in 1961 to 121 crores in 2011 (MoS and PI, 2018) there has been an increased demand for food products nationally. There was an increased estimated demand of 93.99 to 117.56 million tonnes (MT) from 2011-12 to 2029-30 in case of food grains in India according to MoA and FW (2012).
           
    Rice, Oryza sativa (Poaceae) was the major and staple food grain consumed by majority of people in India with a per capita net availability of 73.4 kg per year i.e., 201 g/person/day. The nutritional content differs from rice varieties, but on an average 100 grams of cooked rice provides 130 kcal of energy, 2.58 g of protein, 0.9 g of lipid, 28.73 g of carbohydrates and 1.8 g of fibre (Verma and Shukla, 2011). India ranks second among world countries next to China in rice production. During 2019-20, 5056280 metric tonnes (mT) of non-basmati rice of worth Rs. 14400.32 crores was exported from India (Indiastat, 2021). Nationally, the area under cultivation and productivity of rice significantly increased from 30.5 Mha and 771 kg ha-1 during 1949-50 to 51.3 Mha and 2929 kg ha-1 in 2024-25, respectively. Likewise, production also flared up from 23.5 MT in 1949-50 to 150 MT during 2024-25 (MoA and FW, 2025).
           
    The major insect pests of economic importance in rice were, yellow stem borer (YSB) (Scirpophaga incertulas Walker), brown planthopper (BPH) (Nilaparvata lugens Stal), white backed planthopper (WBPH) (Sogatella furcifera Horváth), leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenée), gall midge (Orseolia oryzae wood-mason), rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera Oliver), army worm (Mythimna separata Walker), green leafhopper (Nephotettix virescens), etc., non insect pests like panicle mite (Stenotarsonemus spinki Smiley) also cause some damage of economic importance.
           
    It was estimated that more than hundred species of insects feed on rice and cause severe damage (Muralidharan and Pasalu, 2006). Some insects significantly damage the rice growth and yield which were considered as major pests of rice and were predominantly important (Nathan, 2015). Approximately 52% of global rice production is lost each year due to biotic stress factors, of which 21 per cent is attributed by the attack of major insect pests (Yarasi et al., 2008). A critical examination of rice insect pests over the past 52 years (1965-2017) revealed a gradual increase in pest numbers, which show that there was always an addition of insect pests every 5 or 10 years, with the previous pest still a source of concern (Jena et al., 2018). Over the past 50-60 years in India, the composition of major rice pests has shifted with changes in cultivation practices and ecology. During the 1960s-1970s (early Green Revolution), stem borers, gall midge and green leafhopper were the dominant pests due to the introduction of high-yielding varieties and irrigation, as documented by IRRI. In the 1980s, brown planthopper emerged as a major pest along with stem borers and gall midge, largely because of insecticide-induced resurgence, a phenomenon well described in Heinrichs (1995). By the 1990s, leaf folder became increasingly important alongside stem borers and planthoppers, while pests like hispa and caseworm gained localized significance, as reported by Pathak and Khan (1994). In the 2000s, the major pest complex included stem borers, brown planthopper, leaf folder, and gall midge, with occasional outbreaks of earhead bug and swarming caterpillar, and greater emphasis was placed on IPM strategies by organizations like Food and Agriculture Organization 2008. From the 2010s to the present, the major pests include stem borers, brown and white-backed planthoppers, leaf folder, gall midge, and green leafhopper, while pests such as hispa and caseworm remain region-specific; these shifts are linked to climate change, pesticide resistance, and intensified cropping, as noted by recent reviews. Overall, although more than 100 insect species attack rice, only a small group becomes major at any given time, and this status changes with agricultural and environmental conditions. Based on the report “integrated pest management package for rice” issued by NCIPM in 2014, yellow stem borer, Planthoppers viz., Brown planthopper and white backed planthopper, leaf folder, gall midge and gundhi bug were considered as major insect pests of national significance in India.
           
    Further, climate change will have an impact on insect behaviour, distribution, and abundance, as indicated by an increase in the number of generations per year, higher winter survival rates, and the earlier appearance of the majority of insects (Shelke et al., 2025; Antanu et al., 2023; Sunitha devi and Varma, 2022; Patel and Singh, 2017 and Singh et al., 2012). Meteorological factors influence seasonal abundance, distribution, and population growth of an insect as reported by Sarkar et al., (2024) and Pandey et al., (2001). Planthopper, armyworm and root weevil population build up was favoured under hot, dry and clear sky conditions. Whereas, leaf folder, stem borer and hispa population build up was favoured under wet, humid and cloudy weather conditions (Butter and Singh, 2005; Singh et al., 2007 and Singh et al., 2012).
     
    Yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas, (Walker) (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)
     
    YSB was the most predominant and serious pest in rice growing tracts of India and South-East Asian countries (Islam, 1996; Banerjee and Pramanik, 1967 and Chelliah and Bentur, 1989). Stem  borer larvae feed on stems of  all stages of the crop and leads to death of tiller i.e., dead heart at vegetative stage and white ear at reproductive stage (Karthikeyan and Purushothaman, 2000; Banding and Listsinger, 2005; Mishra et al., 2005; Muralidharan and Pasalu, 2006; Kadke and Patel, 2014; Rahaman et al., 2014; Manikandan et al., 2016 and Annamalai et al., 2018). Based on 770 experimental units from 28 years coordinated data, Muralidharan and Pasalu (2006) reported yield loss of 2.5%, 4.0% and 6.4% respectively due to 1% dead heart, 1% white ear and 1% both phases of stem borer damage. About 10-60% of yield loss could be occurred due to YSB infestation on rice (Chelliah and Bentur, 1989; Chatterjee and Mondal, 2014). Maximum temperature of 35°C, minimum temperature of 17°C, optimum temperature of 24-29°C, relative humidity of 90-100% and 14.5 to 16 hours of sunshine were the climate normal for stem borer of rice (Singh et al., 2012). The relationship between weather parameters and the damage caused by Scirpophaga incertulas exhibits considerable variability, reflecting complex pest-climate interactions across regions and cropping seasons. Maximum temperature generally shows weak to moderate correlations with damage indicators such as dead hearts (DH) and white ears (WE), with both positive and negative trends reported, often non-significant (Hugar et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2015; Baskaran et al., 2017; Rana et al., 2017; Patel and Singh, 2017; Devendra et al., 2018; Jasrotia et al., 2019; Sawai and Kothikar, 2019; Shilpa et al., 2020; Nikhil et al., 2021; Devi and Varma, 2022). While some studies observed significant positive associations (Baskaran et al., 2019), others reported significant negative correlations (Baskaran et al., 2017), suggesting that extreme heat may either stimulate pest activity or cause physiological stress, depending on local microclimatic and varietal contexts. Minimum temperature similarly shows context-dependent effects; significant negative correlations were reported for both DH and WE in several studies (Patel and Singh, 2017), whereas positive correlations were observed in others, particularly for moth populations and adult emergence (Kumar et al., 2015; Nag et al., 2018; Appalanaidu et al., 2021), highlighting the role of night-time temperature in regulating developmental rates and survival. Rainfall largely exhibits negative correlations with damage (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Baskaran et al., 2017; Patel and Singh, 2017), consistent with the hypothesis that high precipitation can physically wash off eggs and larvae or reduce oviposition sites; however, positive correlations in some cases (Hugar et al., 2010; Kadke and Patel, 2014; Shilpa et al., 2020) suggest that moderate rainfall may enhance plant growth and create favourable microhabitats for pest development. Relative humidity shows generally weak correlations, with occasional significant positive and negative associations (Baskaran et al., 2017; Baskaran et al., 2019), indicating that diurnal and seasonal variation in humidity interacts with other climatic factors to influence pest behaviour, egg viability and larval survival. The available literature on the seasonal incidence of S. incertulas was presented in Table 1.

    Table 1: Review of literature on seasonal incidence of Scirpophaga incertulas in rice ecosystem.



    Rice leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenee) (Crambidae: Lepidoptera)
     
    Rice leaf folder, was regarded as a pest of economic importance in rice ecosystem (Dhaliwal et al., 2007, Chakraborty and Deb 2011, Singh et al., 2017). This was earlier considered as a minor pest, but assumed the status of major pest from 1980 onwards (Nanda et al., 2000) due to excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers and misuse of insecticides were attributed as the causes of this minor pest gaining major pest status (Dhaliwal et al., 1979; Bautista et al., 1984; Gunathilagaraj and Gopalan, 1986; Maragesan and Chelliah, 1987 and Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999). Leaf folder larvae stitches the leaf edges longitudinally and feed voraciously on green foliage, resulting in papery dry leaves (Chatterjee, 1979 and Tiwari et al., 2021), stunting, curling or yellowing of the green foliage (Mishra et al., 1998). The yield loss due to leaf folder accounts for 10 to 30 per cent (Kulgagod et al., 2011 and Saikia and Saikia, 1999), but during an epidemic situation yield loss of 30 to 80 per cent could be occurred (Kushwaha and Singh, 1986; Nanda and Bisoi, 1990 and Rani et al., 2007).
           
    The interaction of weather parameters with Cnaphalocrocis medinalis incidence and leaf damage demonstrates complex, often inconsistent patterns across studies, reflecting the pest’s ecological plasticity. Maximum temperature exhibits both positive and negative associations with moth abundance and leaf damage, with correlations ranging from strongly negative (e.g., Singh et al., 2017; Gajjar et al., 2017) to strongly positive (e.g., Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Meena et al., 2018), indicating that moderate temperatures may favour larval development and adult activity, whereas extremes can suppress feeding or increase mortality. Minimum temperature similarly displays variable effects; significant negative correlations for moths and leaf damage have been reported (Singh et al., 2017; Patel et al., 2011), while some studies show significant positive associations (Thokchom et al., 2018; Saikia et al., 2019), suggesting that night-time temperatures critically modulate pupal development and adult emergence. Rainfall largely shows a dual influence: Excessive precipitation negatively affects moth activity and leaf damage (Shyamrao and Raghuraman, 2019; Chatterjee et al., 2021), likely due to larval wash-off or egg mortality, whereas moderate rainfall appears to enhance foliage quality and microclimatic conditions conducive to larval feeding (Gajjar et al., 2017; Saikia et al., 2019). Relative humidity, both morning and evening, generally correlates positively with larval growth and leaf damage under certain conditions (Sharma et al., 2018; Thokchom et al., 2018; Gajjar et al., 2017), but can also show negative associations (Shyamrao and Raghuraman, 2019; Chatterjee et al., 2021; Mishra et al., 2019), indicating that extremes of moisture may hinder pest activity or promote fungal pathogens affecting larvae. Overall, these findings underscore the highly context-dependent influence of climatic variables on C. medinalis, with interactions between temperature, humidity, and rainfall shaping pest phenology and feeding intensity. Under favourable climatic conditions leaf folder affects the crop adversely resulting in severe losses (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999 and Patnaik, 2001). Insect physiology is directly affected by abiotic factors (Kennedy and Storer, 2000 and Ramya, 2012) and indirectly by host plant conditions. The available literature on seasonal incidence of C. medinalis was presented in Table 2.

    Table 2: Review of literature on seasonal incidence of C. medinalis in rice ecosystem.


     
    Brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stal) (Delphacidae: Hemiptera)
     
    BPH was a pest of minor importance till mid-sixties, later in 1970’s assumed the most destructive pest status with first serious epidemic in 1973 resulting in 10-70% yield loss (Krishnaiah and Varma, 2012). Series of epidemics since then were recorded in Krishna and Godavari deltas of Andhra Pradesh from 1976-1983 and also Karnataka (1975 and 1958); Telangana (1980); Madhya Pradesh (1976) and Tamil Nadu (1977 and 1982); (Rao et al., 1976 and Krishnaiah, 1993). BPH is the monophagous and tiny insect where nymphs and adults feeds on the phloem tissue of the rice plant which dries the plant and leads to hopper burn symptom (Sogawa, 1992; Turner et al., 1999., Rao et al., 2003; Chaudary et al., 2014). In the current context, global climate change is a reality, and adverse climate changes have a positive impact on insect populations, particularly phloem sucking insects like BPH (IPCC, 2007; Pandi  et al., 2018; Vailla et al., 2019 and Chittibabu et al., 2020). Optimum temperature of 28-30°C and 85% relative humidity favours the build of the pest (Singh et al., 2012).The available literature on seasonal incidence of N. lugens was presented in Table 3.

    Table 3: Review of literature on seasonal incidence of Nilaparvata lugens in rice ecosystem.


           
    The relationship between weather variables and Nilaparvata lugens populations demonstrates considerable variability, highlighting the pest’s sensitivity to both thermal and moisture regimes. Maximum temperature shows both significant positive correlations (e.g., Chittibabu et al., 2020; Deshmukh et al., 2021; Mohanta et al., 2020) and non-significant negative associations (e.g., Kumar et al., 2017; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), suggesting that moderate warming may stimulate adult activity and oviposition, whereas extreme heat may inhibit survival or alter dispersal behaviour. Minimum temperature generally exhibits a negative relationship with pest incidence in several studies (Nirala et al., 2015b; Kumar et al., 2017; Deshmukh et al., 2021), reflecting delayed development and lower nymphal survival under cooler night-time temperatures; however, occasional positive correlations (Mohanta et al., 2020) indicate site-specific responses influenced by local varietal susceptibility and seasonal microclimate. Rainfall effects are similarly inconsistent: while some studies report significant positive correlations (Chaudhary et al., 2014; Chittibabu et al., 2020; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), likely due to enhanced humidity and plant vigour facilitating nymph development, others demonstrate negative or non-significant associations (Kumar et al., 2017; Deshmukh et al., 2021), potentially reflecting larval wash-off, reduced egg viability, or disruption of feeding sites. Relative humidity, though less frequently studied, appears to exert weak but variable effects, with both positive (Chaudhary et al., 2014) and negative (Mohanta et al., 2020) correlations, indicating that optimal moisture levels support pest proliferation while extremes may induce stress or favor natural enemies.
     
    White backed planthopper (Sogatella furcifera Horvath) (Delphacidae: Hemiptera)
     
    WBPH is a major sucking pest of rice in many rice-growing regions of India. Before 1991, WBPH was mostly restricted to northern states such as Punjab and Haryana. However, after 1995, WBPH began infesting rice crops in southern states in BPH, causing near-devastation in some years (Panda and Khush, 1995; Krishnaiah et al., 2002 and Krishnaiah et al., 2008). Both nymphs and adults feed on the phloem tissue of the rice plant resulting in drying of the plants and also transmit certain viral diseases (Krishnaiah et al., 2002 and Nirala et al., 2015b). Like BPH, favourable conditions for flare up of the pest were maximum temperature of 33°C, minimum temperature of 25°C and 85% relative humidity as reported by Singh et al., (2012).
     
    Green leafhopper (Nephotettix virescens distant and Nephotettix nigropictus Stal) (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
     
    These two species of leafhoppers were most common in India, where both nymphs and adults suck sap from the phloem (Mohanta et al., 2020). Direct damage by these leafhoppers seldom causes economic loss, but rice tungro virus (RTV) transmitted by them cause extensive damage. Huge loss due to RTV occurred in in Andhra Pradesh during 1984 for the first time and again during kharif 1990, in East and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh (Krishnaiah and Varma, 2012).
           
    The population dynamics of Nephotettix spp. appear to be strongly influenced by weather parameters, although the strength and direction of these associations vary across studies and locations. Maximum temperature generally shows weak, non-significant correlations with pest abundance, with both positive and negative trends reported (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018; Mohanta et al., 2020; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), suggesting that extreme heat may not be a primary limiting factor for pest proliferation. In contrast, minimum temperature is often negatively correlated, with some studies reporting significant effects (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Meena et al., 2018), implying that lower night-time temperatures may suppress pest activity or survival. Relative humidity exhibits contrasting effects depending on the time of day: morning relative humidity generally shows a positive association (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018), which may facilitate feeding and reproduction, whereas evening relative humidity is more variable, showing both significant positive and negative correlations (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017; Meena et al., 2018; Mohanta et al., 2020; Nishanthini and Kandibane, 2021), likely reflecting diurnal behavioral patterns and microclimatic fluctuations. Rainfall predominantly exhibits negative correlations with Nephotettix spp. abundance (Bhatnagar and Saxena, 1999; Kumar et al., 2017), though Meena et al., (2018) observed positive associations in some contexts, highlighting that rainfall may influence populations both directly, through mortality or dispersal, and indirectly, via host plant conditions.
     
    Gall midge [Orseolia oryzae (Wood-mason)] (Cecid omyiidae: Diptera)
     
    The rice gall midge is one of the major insect pests of rice (Mardi et al., 2009), and had several epidemics in India during the years 1971, 1976, 1978, 1980 and 1982 (Shrivastava, et al., 1987). In 1986, gall midge severely damaged rice crops in north-eastern Andhra Pradesh (Bentur et al., 1987). A serious outbreak of gall midge occurred in the West Godavari district, of Andhra Pradesh in 1989 (Rao and Rao, 1989). The gall midge larva attacks rice from nursery to the end of tillering stage and early infestation results in gall formation from the tillers which consequently do not bear panicles (Mardi et al., 2009). The seasonal incidence of rice gall midge fluctuates with prevailing weather conditions from year to year (Gopalkrishnan et al., 1954; Patel et al., 1957; Prakasarao et al., 1971a and Saroja, 1982). Bentur et al., 1987 reported that pest buildup was favored by high rainfall (410 mm) in late June to mid Aug, and frequent cyclonic storms in Sep and Oct, which in cloudy and humid periods.
           
    Hegdekatti (1972) reported the activity of the pest in August; whereas, Patel and Bowmik (1987) reported it in the first or second week of July. Shrivastava et al.  (1987) revealed that the major active season of the pest was from 36th to 43rd SMW with two peaks; one in 38th SMW and the other in 42nd SMW during kharif season. The peak activity of the pest was observed during October by Hidaka et al., (1977) and Sain and Kalode (1992). In Telangana, Sain and Kalode (1992) reported the activity of the pest from late August, reaching peak during October and declined by December. Mardi et al., (2009) reported the incidence of rice gall midge on grasses from second week of July to second week of September with major active period on the main crop in fourth week of September i.e., 39th SMW (Srivastava  et al., 1987).
     
    Rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera Oliver) (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)
     
    Rice hispa, earlier known to be a sporadic insect-pest of paddy, has assumed the status of major pest in many rice growing regions of the country (Deka et al., 1999; Rahman and Rahman, 2001; Polaszek et al., 2002; Islam et al., 2004; Hazarika et al., 2005; Bhattacharjee and Ray, 2010 and Chakraborty and Deb, 2012). Activity of the pest was recorded in Andhra Pradesh (Rao, 1977) and covers almost all the crop growing seasons (Prakasarao et al., 1971a and Budhraja et al., 1979). Outbreak of this pest was reported from Himachal Pradesh for the last few years limiting the production and productivity of rice (Choudhary et al., 2001 and Sharma et al., 2012). It causes extensive damage to the vegetative stage of the crop resulting in 28% (Nath and Dutta, 2002), 35-65 per cent loss in yield (Rajek et al., 1986 and Hazarika and Dutta, 1991) and in endemic areas of the pest, upto 100% crop loss can be seen in certain cases (Islam et al., 2004).
           
    Sharma et al., (2018) revealed that the adults of rice hispa started infesting the paddy crop early in the season at 26th SMW and continued till the crop maturity i.e., 40th to 44th SMW; whereas, the grub incidence was reported from 28th to 39th SMW. Chakraborthy and Deb (2012) reported that highest number of individuals were found during 36th SMW and maximum temperatures and high humidity are conducive to hispa population growth and multiplication which shows that high winter humidity and summer temperatures tend to have higher hispa abundance.
           
    Prakasarao et al., (1971b) had mentioned that unusual high rainfall in August-September favoured the pest out-break. Rao (1977) from Andhra Pradesh have reported an incursion of hispa at high humidity following heavy rain and during “intermittent bright sunshine”. Thakur et al., (1979) have documented that hispa incidence is associated with maximum temperature and relative humidity. Choudhary et al., (2001) have reported that the pest started to appear as early as second fortnight of May and remain active on the paddy till to the second week of November.

    CONCLUSION

     In India, the seasonal presence of insect pests is closely related to cropping patterns, shifting weather conditions, and the country’s varied agro-climatic conditions. It is essential to comprehend these temporal dynamics in order to forecast pest outbreaks and put timely management measures in place. This study emphasizes the need of climate-sensitive pest management strategies and the increasing demand for research that are relevant to a given region, real-time surveillance and predictive modeling. Proactive measures like integrated pest management (IPM), in conjunction with technology advancements and farmer education, are crucial to preserving crop yields and guaranteeing agricultural sustainability when climate change changes conventional pest patterns. Minimizing pest-related losses in the face of changing environmental challenges will require ongoing research and cooperation between farmers, agricultural institutions and meteorological services.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the completion of this review article. We acknowledge the valuable insights gained from previously published research works and thank the academic community for their continuous contributions to this field.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarilyrepresent the views of their affiliated institutions.
     
    Informed consent
     
    Not applicable. This article is a review of previously published studies and does not involve animal participants.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.

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