Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive
Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

The Miracle Tree in Focus: A Critical Review on the Uses and Benefits of Moringa oleifera

N
Neetu Pandey1
S
Santosh Kumar Karn2,*
R
Ritu Raj Negi1
1Department of Applied Chemistry and Basic Sciences, School of Applied Chemistry and Basic Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun-248 001, Uttarakhand, India.
2Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun-248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

ABSTRACT

Moringa oleifera Lam., native to the Indian subcontinent, is widely cultivated worldwidedue to itsecological, economic and cultural significance. Their roles in traditional medicine, adaptability to diverse climatic conditions and commercial purposes have garnered significant attention, backed by its mention in Ayurvedic texts. This reviewconsolidates available literature on thephytochemistry of bioactive compounds and their incorporation in numerous pharmacological activities exhibited by the plant. It is endowed with important phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, glycosides, glucosinolates and alkaloids,concentrated in thewhole plant, including leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, roots and pods. A plethora of pharmacological activities, includinganti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antitumor, analgesic, anticancer, antidiabetic and antidiuretic activities, are exhibited by Moringa oleifera. This study also investigates the utilisation of Moringa oleiferain other non-medical fields such as water purification, biostimulant,and biofuel production.Moringa oleiferais therefore considered a huge ethano-botanical entity and needs to be extensively introduced into nutraceutical supplements.

INTRODUCTION

Moringa oleifera, a tropical tree native to the lower Himalayanrange, has now propagated across the tropical regions in Africa, Asia and South America (Dubey et al., 2013). This is a tree of small to medium size, usually reaching a height of 5 to 10 meters which belongs to the Brassicales order.This tree flourishes best in a tropical, insular climate and is often plentiful near the sandy river and stream beds (Garg, 1949). It spreads in humid tropical regions or arid areas, can withstand barren soils and demonstrates resilience to drought. The plant can withstand a broad spectrum of rainfall amounts, ranging from 250 mm to over 3000 mm. Due to its diverse properties, it has acquired the name “miracle tree.” Moringa oleiferawas awarded the title “Botanical of the Year 2007” by the National Institutes of Health (Gupta et al., 2011). It has numerous traditional purposes throughout its regional distribution and culinary practices vary according to traditions and taste preferences.
       
It is referred to as various vernacular names such as horseradish tree, drumstick tree, kelor, sohajana, etc throughout the world and is conventionally used in traditional medicine across different cultures. The plant parts, such as leaves, fruits, flowers, immature pods and others, contain a significant amount of bioactive compounds, which result in many pharmacological properties as well as the high nutritive value. These factors corroborate to the medical benefits of Moringa oleifera, which strengthens its role in the herbal nutraceutical market such as vegan food, healthy snacks and plant based supplements (Singh et al., 2024). The exponential growth in new patents necessitates an updated assessment. This review aims to provide evidence for all the health promoting characteristic shown by various parts of the Moringa plant, by systematically assessing the previous knowledge and the recent research, while identifying existing research gaps to guide future enhancements.
       
To ensure a thorough review, a systematic literature search was conducted across diverse electronic databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, Wiley and PubMed. Relevant key terms and combinations, such as antioxidant properties, anticancer, nutrition, bioactive compounds, pharmacology, etc were used to search extensively. Inclusion criteria included studies focused on the nutritional properties, phytochemistry and applications of Moringa oleiferain the medicinal and food industry. Exclusion criteria comprised of articles that were non-English, not peer reviewed, not directly confines in the domain of this review and lacking the primary health-related data. Citations were managed and duplicates removed using Zotero software to ensure consistent formatting.
 
Nutritional value
 
The seeds, pods, flowers and leaves of Moringa oleifera are dense in bioactive compounds and nutrient-dense, thus favouringthe use of all the plant parts (Ravani et al., 2017). It has high concentrations of vitamins, protein, minerals, various phytoconstituents,amino acids, i.e., tryptophan, methionine, cysteine andlysine, thereby making itnutritionally adequate for human consumption (Anwar et al., 2007; Rani and Arumugam, 2017). In the form of β-carotene, Vitamin A is found at levels four times that of carrots and thirteen times that of spinach (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2016). It has higher levels of the Vitamin B complex (B1, B2, B3, B6 and B12) and Vitamin C than those found in pork meat and oranges, respectively (Su and Chen, 2020). The levels of calcium, magnesium and iron surpass those found in conventional sources, with calcium being four times that of milk, magnesium 36 times that of an egg and iron 25 times that of spinach.The potassium levels are 63 times greater than in milk and 3 times higher than banana (Aregheore, 2012). The seeds are energy-dense due to a high amount of fat content at 44.78 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. This nutritionally potent super food is an excellent source to control malnutrition and ensure adequatenutrition (Prakash et al., 2012). Table 1 enumerates the nutritional composition of Moringa oleifera (per 100 g fresh weight).

Table 1: Nutritional composition of Moringa oleifera.


 
Phytochemistry
 
Phenolic compounds
 
Polyphenols, a primary class of phytochemicals, are structurally defined by single (phenolic acids) or multiple phenolic rings (flavonoids). Polyphenols, a class of secondary metabolites comprising polyhydroxy phytochemicals in plants, serve as critical defences against pathogenic threats and ultraviolet radiation (Beckman, 2000). To date, over 8,000 polyphenolic compounds have been isolated, structurally characterised and documented, reflecting their vast diversity and functional significance in plant biology (Arts and Hollman, 2005; Scalbert et al., 2005). The Folin-Ciocalteu assay, widely employed to determine total phenolic content (TPC), reveals that leaves contain a high concentration range of 2,000 to 12,200 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g (Leone et al., 2015). The seed and flowers demonstrated markedly lower levels of Total Phenolic Content (TPC) (Alhakmani et al., 2013). Key phenolic acids include gallic (Singh et al., 2009), caffeic (Bajpai et al., 2005), chlorogenic (Leone et al., 2015), coumaric and ellagic acids (Leone et al., 2015).
 
Glycosides/glucosinolates
 
In most tissues,excluding roots and seeds, the predominant identified flavonoids are Kaempfero land Quercetin glycosides (glucosides, rutinosides, malonyl glucosides) (Saini et al., 2016). The Quercetin and Kaempferol concentrations in leaves range from 0.46-16.64 mg/g and 0.16-3.92 mg/g dry weight, respectively (Amaglo et al., 2010a; Bennett et al., 2003; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). The presence of minor flavonols, such as myricetin (Sultana et al., 2009), rutin (Bajpai et al., 2005) and epicatechin (Ma et al., 2020) is also observed. Geographical disparities are documented for flavonoid profiles, reflecting cultivar-specific adaptations (Coppin et al., 2013). Niazimicin, a thiocarbamate glycoside, was found as a major bioactive component in both neuroprotective activity and antitumor activity, along with Niaziminin, a thiocarbamate isolated from leaves (Abdelsayed et al., 2021).
       
Glucosinolates are a group of secondary metabolites derived from glucose and amino acids that contain nitrogen and sulfur. The most prevalentglucosinolateis identified as 4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl glucosinolate, commonly known as glucomoringin. Glucomoringin is primarily concentrated in seeds (up to 8,620 mg/100 g), followed by leaves (78 mg/100 g), stems, flowers and pods (Amaglo et al., 2010b; Maldini et al., 2014). Benzyl glucosinolate, also known as glucotropaeolin, a distinct structural variant, is primarily contained in the roots. Geographical disparities significantly influence glucosinolate profiles, with concentrations varying across cultivars and various areas (Bennett et al., 2003). Myrosinase-induced enzymatic hydrolysis of glucosinolates yields bioactive metabolites, including isothiocyanates, nitriles, thiocarbamates and glucose, all of which contribute to Moringa’s biochemical and pharmacological properties (Waterman et al., 2014). Three derivatives of thiocarbamate (TC) and isothiocyanate (ITC) exhibited antitumor activity prominently,4-[(4′-O-acetyl-α-irhamnosyloxy) benzyl],a naturally occurring isothiocyanate, implying that the isothiocyanate group is a crucial structural factor for activity (Jiwajinda, 1998).
 
Carotenoids
 
Carotenoids, a class of phytochemicals responsible for imparting vibrant red, yellow, or orange pigmentation to vegetables and fruits, are abundant in Moringa oleifera. Fresh leaves exhibit exceptionally high β-carotene (provitamin A) concentrations (6.6-17.4 mg/100 g), exceeding levels seenincarrots, apricots and pumpkins (Kidmose et al., 2006). Dried leaves demonstrate even greater β-carotene content, ranging from 23.31 to 39.6 mg/100 g of dry weight (Glover-Amengor et al., 2017; Joshi and Mehta, 2010). Beyond β-carotene, studies of Indian commercial cultivars identify diverse carotenoids in foliage, flowers and immature pods (Saini et al., 2016). All-E-lutein dominates these tissues, constituting over 50% of total carotenoid content, while minor constituents include all-E-luteoxanthin, 13-Z-lutein, all-E-zeaxanthin and 15-Z-β-carotene, detected at lower concentrations.
 
Alkaloids
 
Alkaloids, nitrogen-containing organic compounds biosynthesised through amino acid metabolic pathways, are relatively rare in Moringa oleifera. However, studies confirm the presence of specific alkaloids, with the indole alkaloid N,α-L-rhamnopyranosylvincosamide being the most frequently extracted from leaves (Cheraghi et al., 2017; Panda et al., 2013). Leaves show the presence of unique pyrrole alkaloid glycosides, including pyrrolemarumine 4′′ -O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (marumoside A) and 4′-hydroxyphenylethanamide (marumoside B), having distinctive structural configurations (Sahakitpichan et al., 2011). Table 2 represents the phytochemicals and their activities and Fig 1 shows the structure of the phytochemicals mentioned.

Table 2: Phytochemicals and their activities shown in Moringa oleifera.



Fig 1: Structures of selected bioactive compoundsfrom Moringa oleifera.


 
Pharmacological attributes
 
Antioxidant and antiperoxidative
 
The antioxidant potential of Moringa oleiferais primarily attributed to the scavenging property of free radicals induced from radiation by antioxidants, such asphenolic compounds, ascorbic acid oxidase and vitamins A, C and E, as well as polyphenol oxidase, catalase, glycosidic glucosinolates, Isothiocyanates (ITCs), carbamates, nitriles and thiocarbamates (Fayazuddin and Kumar, 2013; Yang et al., 2006). Both the leaves and root extracts reportedantioxidant activity and radical scavenging activity (Singh et al., 2009; Sultana et al., 2009; Verma et al., 2009). This was supported by the prevention of oxidative damage exhibited by both young and mature leaves (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009) and adecreaseinthe OH-dependent damage byaqueous extracts of leaf, fruit and leaves (Singh et al., 2009). This aligns with the notable decrease in the level of hepatic marker enzymes and lipid peroxidation with an increase in the level of antioxidants (Ashok and Pari, 2003). Leaf extract demonstrated prevention of radiation-induced augmentation in hepatic lipid peroxidation and recovery of Glutathione in the liver (Sinha et al., 2012).
 
Antiasthmatic activity
 
Seed kernelsexhibitedanti- asthmatic activity through bronchodilator, mast cell stabilisation, showing efficacy comparable to the standard drug ketotifen (Mehta and Agrawal, 2008). The alcoholic extract of leaves suppressed the release of inflammatory mediators, including histamine and β-hexosaminidase, inhibited Mast cell degranulation and stabilised eosinophil count at varying levels compared to ketotifen fumarate (Abd Rani et al., 2019; Suresh et al., 2020; Palupi et al., 2021). Primary asthmatic symptoms showed a decrease alongside anotable increase in lung volumes and lung flow rates,thus validating the antiasthmatic activity.
 
Anti-inflammatory activity
 
Ethyl acetate fraction demonstrated potential anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the NF-κB signalling pathway activation, migration into the nucleus and the generation of various inflammatory proteins (Arulselvan et al., 2016). Aqueous extracts performed comparably to the anti-inflammatory drug, indomethacin, inhibiting carrageenan-induced oedema in rats (Ndiaye et al., 2002). Phytoconstituents such as Moringaisothiocyanate (MIC-1), including flavonoids, 4-hydroxymellein, β-sitosterol and vanillin are credited for the anti-inflammatory efficacy (Cheng et al., 2019).
 
Anti-arthritic activity
 
Methanolic extractof stem bark showed a dose-dependent pattern against all the models of inflammation (Formaldehyde and Freund’s adjuvant-induced) (Kumar et al., 2013). Ethanolic and aqueous extracts displayed significant reduction inCRP levels, arthritis score, paw thickness andpawoedemavolumecomparable with diclofenac sodium (Fatima and Fatima, 2016). The use of flower extractresulted in a collective decline of paw oedemavolume, inflammation at non-injected sites of the left hind paw, body weight, arthritic index and a reduction in the cytokines tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1 andserum levels of Rheumatoid Factor (RF) (Kumar et al., 2013).
 
Diuretic activity
 
Dose-dependent saluretic action of alcoholic extract of leaves was observed against the hydrochlorothiazide group (Tahkur et al., 2016). Aqueous and alcoholicextracts of root bark considerably reduce dkidney retention levels of phosphate, oxalate and calcium and the urinary excretion (Karadi et al., 2008). Likewise, the aqueous seed extract increased urine output (Cáceres et al., 1992).
 
Antimicrobial activity
 
Antimicrobial efficacy of seeds is ascribed to lectinsthatbind to bacterial membranes, destabilise structural integrity and suppress microbial proliferation. Phenolic compounds present in leaves demonstrate efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. N-benzylethylthioformate, a potent antifungal and antibacterial compound,is found in the roots, whereasflavonoids and phenolic acids present in fruitsshowed inhibition against clinically relevant microbial strains. Table 3 enlists the microbes and the parts of Moringa oleiferawhich show inhibition against the microbes (Dahiya and Purkayastha, 2012; Das et al., 2022; Moummou et al., 2024; Patel and Mohan, 2018; Raubilu et al., 2020).

Table 3: Microbes and part of which show inhibition.


 
Antitumor/anticancer activity
 
Anticancer activity of Moringa oleiferahas been extensively researched and supported by various studies (Costa-Lotufo et al., 2005; Parvathy and Umamaheshwari, 2007). Compounds such as derivatives of thiocarbamate (TC) and isothiocyanate (ITC) and sterols were associated with the antitumour activity by inhibiting activation of tumour promoter-induced Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) (Jiwajinda, 1998). A two-stage model of 7, 12-dimethylbenzanthracene-induced skin papillomagenesis in mice was used to evaluate the chemoprotective efficacy of the hydro-alcoholic extract of drumsticks (Bharali et al., 2003). Despite promising in vitro data, clinical studies and in vivo experimentation are limited, highlighting a critical research gap.
 
Antihypertensive and cardio-protective activity
 
Seed protein hydrolysates and peptide fractions have shown antihypertensive effects, reducing blood pressure and heart rate (Randriamboavonjy et al., 2016), while leaf extracts exhibited cardioprotective effects against isoproterenol-induced myocardial damage (Nandave et al., 2009). Pharmacological evaluation attributed significant hypotensive effects to two nitrile glycosides (niazirin and niazirinin) and three mustard oil glycosides: 4-[(4′-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl] isothiocyanate (compound 4), niaziminin A and niaziminin B (Faizi et al., 1994).
 
Hepatoprotective activity
 
Ethanolic and crude aqueous extract of leaves was evaluated on drug inducedliver damage, with the alcoholic extract showing significant activity at a lower concentration compared to the aqueous extract (Pari and Kumar, 2002; Rameshvar et al., 2010). This aligns with the study on paracetamol-induced liver damage which reduced elevated liver enzyme level (Ranganathan et al., 2020). Fig 2 demonstrates various pharmacological properties exhibited by Moringa oleifera.

Fig 2: Pharmacological properties of parts of Moringa oleifera.


 
Antipyretic and analgesic activity
 
The ethanolic and ethyl acetate extractswere found to showantipyretic effects in a dose-dependent pattern as compared to the standard against yeast-induced hyperpyrexia model (Hukkeri et al., 2006), similar to the hydro-alcoholic extract of bark (Ahmad et al., 2014). The methanolic extract of leaves was considered highest in antipyretic effect as compared to the bark and root extracts throughout various regions of Punjab, Pakistan (Jamil et al., 2024). The extracts from leaves, seeds and bark exhibited analgesic potency in a dose-dependent pattern in different pain models such as the hot plate method (centrally mediated) and the acetic acid-induced writhing method (peripherally mediated) (Abdul et al., 2021; Kumbhare and Sivakumar, 2011; Sachan, 2012; Sutar et al., 2008).
 
Industrial uses
 
Moringa oleifera seeds are identified as a prominent, viable natural coagulant against their synthetic counterparts, such as alum (Kalogo et al., 2000). Traditionally, crude seeds were utilised to treat highly turbid Nile water, eliminating 98-99% of indicator bacteria,as confirmed by a study (Muyibi and Evison, 1995), offering an economic and sustainable solution. Seed oilshowed potential as biodiesel production through transesterification  by the usage of different catalysts (Aqilah, 2013; Esmaeili et al., 2019), resultingin biodiesel exhibiting favourable properties (Haizum and Hassan, 2013). The production of rayon-grade pulp as a raw material for cellophane and textiles usage (Mahajan and Sharma, 1984) and the use of pulverised bark in ropes and mats manufacture demonstrate its industrial uses. Fig 3 illustrates other domestic uses of Moringa oleifera.
 
Patents
 
Moringa oleiferais known for itsutilisationin commercial applications, including pharmaceutical formulations, nutraceutical supplements andothersustainable products like water purifiers or cosmetics. Table 4 enlists a few patented innovations with their assigned patent number, year of approval and description.

Table 4: Patents based on Moringa oleifera.


 
Safety concerns and limitations
 
Moringa oleifera is widely consumed as commercially available foods, nutraceutical supplements and other formulations across the market. Therefore, it is essential to thoroughly study the concerns regarding its safety. Numerous toxicological studies, including in vitro and animal studies, have assessed that leaves and seeds are safe for consumption within dietary limits. However, high doses or prolonged intake might show anadverse influence on some bodily functions and metabolic pathways. A maximum ingestion of 70g of Moringa oleifera is considered safe to prevent cumulative toxicity of the essential elements over extended intake. Bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, glucosinolates and isothiocyanates can cause dose-dependent toxicity in some cases. Extracts prepared using organic solvents have shown higher toxicity compared to aqueous extracts, suggesting that safety outcomes are significantly influenced by extraction methods. Antifertility effects of root and bark extracts have raised concerns over their use during pregnancy. Inadequate processing or bad agricultural practices result in contamination with heavy metalsor other adulterants, poses safety risks during handling. Despite its broad therapeutic ability, dosage recommendations, standard extraction procedures and quality control measures should be taken.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

The primary aim of this review was to systematically study the pharmacological propertiesand phytochemistry of Moringa oleiferaso as to provide a comprehensive study for multi-disciplinary research. It attempts to aggregate the majority of the recent studies and previous knowledge of therapeutic effects, bioactive compounds, nutritional value, or commercial value found in Moringa oleifera.
       
Pre-existing research has assessed that it possesses numerous pharmacological activities, which are contributed by the phytoconstituents present in the different parts of the plant. But the need for clinical trials and strong scientific evidence regarding the mechanism of action of the proposed activities is crucial for future prospects in thecommercial sector. Moringa oleifera has substantial socio-economic significance throughout the globe due to its cost-effectiveness and high accessibility. It is documented to have regional and ethanobotanical regular usage traditionally across various cultures, which facilitates its introduction in theroutine diet, therefore enhancing nutrient intake. Thus shows great potential to be a ubiquitous nutraceutical supplement as the need for plant-based dietary supplements is increasing in the market. The accessible cultivation criteria, drought resistance and easy growing capability of Moringa oleifera should be utilised for large-scale production. It will help farmers reduce their dependency on water-demanding species, as well as provideraw material for Moringa supplements, thus generating income. Readily available products, such as dissolvable tablets, incorporation in snacks, can be a huge advantage as the market for healthy and ready-to-use goods is constantly increasing. Nevertheless, Moringa oleifera lives up to its name, “the miracle tree”, through the evidence provided in the review and has immense potential to influence the nutraceutical market.Further research in this field is required to integrate its availability in pharmaceutical and nutritional development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to the grant of Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (UCOST) (UCOST-RND/5/2024UCOST-DPT-26324). The authors also thank theDepartment of Applied Chemistry and Basic Sciences and the Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, SBS University, for providing the space and facilities to carry out this work.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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    Review Article

    The Miracle Tree in Focus: A Critical Review on the Uses and Benefits of Moringa oleifera

    N
    Neetu Pandey1
    S
    Santosh Kumar Karn2,*
    R
    Ritu Raj Negi1
    1Department of Applied Chemistry and Basic Sciences, School of Applied Chemistry and Basic Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun-248 001, Uttarakhand, India.
    2Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Sardar Bhagwan Singh University, Dehradun-248 001, Uttarakhand, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Moringa oleifera Lam., native to the Indian subcontinent, is widely cultivated worldwidedue to itsecological, economic and cultural significance. Their roles in traditional medicine, adaptability to diverse climatic conditions and commercial purposes have garnered significant attention, backed by its mention in Ayurvedic texts. This reviewconsolidates available literature on thephytochemistry of bioactive compounds and their incorporation in numerous pharmacological activities exhibited by the plant. It is endowed with important phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, glycosides, glucosinolates and alkaloids,concentrated in thewhole plant, including leaves, fruits, flowers, seeds, roots and pods. A plethora of pharmacological activities, includinganti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antitumor, analgesic, anticancer, antidiabetic and antidiuretic activities, are exhibited by Moringa oleifera. This study also investigates the utilisation of Moringa oleiferain other non-medical fields such as water purification, biostimulant,and biofuel production.Moringa oleiferais therefore considered a huge ethano-botanical entity and needs to be extensively introduced into nutraceutical supplements.

    INTRODUCTION

    Moringa oleifera, a tropical tree native to the lower Himalayanrange, has now propagated across the tropical regions in Africa, Asia and South America (Dubey et al., 2013). This is a tree of small to medium size, usually reaching a height of 5 to 10 meters which belongs to the Brassicales order.This tree flourishes best in a tropical, insular climate and is often plentiful near the sandy river and stream beds (Garg, 1949). It spreads in humid tropical regions or arid areas, can withstand barren soils and demonstrates resilience to drought. The plant can withstand a broad spectrum of rainfall amounts, ranging from 250 mm to over 3000 mm. Due to its diverse properties, it has acquired the name “miracle tree.” Moringa oleiferawas awarded the title “Botanical of the Year 2007” by the National Institutes of Health (Gupta et al., 2011). It has numerous traditional purposes throughout its regional distribution and culinary practices vary according to traditions and taste preferences.
           
    It is referred to as various vernacular names such as horseradish tree, drumstick tree, kelor, sohajana, etc throughout the world and is conventionally used in traditional medicine across different cultures. The plant parts, such as leaves, fruits, flowers, immature pods and others, contain a significant amount of bioactive compounds, which result in many pharmacological properties as well as the high nutritive value. These factors corroborate to the medical benefits of Moringa oleifera, which strengthens its role in the herbal nutraceutical market such as vegan food, healthy snacks and plant based supplements (Singh et al., 2024). The exponential growth in new patents necessitates an updated assessment. This review aims to provide evidence for all the health promoting characteristic shown by various parts of the Moringa plant, by systematically assessing the previous knowledge and the recent research, while identifying existing research gaps to guide future enhancements.
           
    To ensure a thorough review, a systematic literature search was conducted across diverse electronic databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science, Wiley and PubMed. Relevant key terms and combinations, such as antioxidant properties, anticancer, nutrition, bioactive compounds, pharmacology, etc were used to search extensively. Inclusion criteria included studies focused on the nutritional properties, phytochemistry and applications of Moringa oleiferain the medicinal and food industry. Exclusion criteria comprised of articles that were non-English, not peer reviewed, not directly confines in the domain of this review and lacking the primary health-related data. Citations were managed and duplicates removed using Zotero software to ensure consistent formatting.
     
    Nutritional value
     
    The seeds, pods, flowers and leaves of Moringa oleifera are dense in bioactive compounds and nutrient-dense, thus favouringthe use of all the plant parts (Ravani et al., 2017). It has high concentrations of vitamins, protein, minerals, various phytoconstituents,amino acids, i.e., tryptophan, methionine, cysteine andlysine, thereby making itnutritionally adequate for human consumption (Anwar et al., 2007; Rani and Arumugam, 2017). In the form of β-carotene, Vitamin A is found at levels four times that of carrots and thirteen times that of spinach (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2016). It has higher levels of the Vitamin B complex (B1, B2, B3, B6 and B12) and Vitamin C than those found in pork meat and oranges, respectively (Su and Chen, 2020). The levels of calcium, magnesium and iron surpass those found in conventional sources, with calcium being four times that of milk, magnesium 36 times that of an egg and iron 25 times that of spinach.The potassium levels are 63 times greater than in milk and 3 times higher than banana (Aregheore, 2012). The seeds are energy-dense due to a high amount of fat content at 44.78 mg per 100 g of fresh weight. This nutritionally potent super food is an excellent source to control malnutrition and ensure adequatenutrition (Prakash et al., 2012). Table 1 enumerates the nutritional composition of Moringa oleifera (per 100 g fresh weight).

    Table 1: Nutritional composition of Moringa oleifera.


     
    Phytochemistry
     
    Phenolic compounds
     
    Polyphenols, a primary class of phytochemicals, are structurally defined by single (phenolic acids) or multiple phenolic rings (flavonoids). Polyphenols, a class of secondary metabolites comprising polyhydroxy phytochemicals in plants, serve as critical defences against pathogenic threats and ultraviolet radiation (Beckman, 2000). To date, over 8,000 polyphenolic compounds have been isolated, structurally characterised and documented, reflecting their vast diversity and functional significance in plant biology (Arts and Hollman, 2005; Scalbert et al., 2005). The Folin-Ciocalteu assay, widely employed to determine total phenolic content (TPC), reveals that leaves contain a high concentration range of 2,000 to 12,200 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g (Leone et al., 2015). The seed and flowers demonstrated markedly lower levels of Total Phenolic Content (TPC) (Alhakmani et al., 2013). Key phenolic acids include gallic (Singh et al., 2009), caffeic (Bajpai et al., 2005), chlorogenic (Leone et al., 2015), coumaric and ellagic acids (Leone et al., 2015).
     
    Glycosides/glucosinolates
     
    In most tissues,excluding roots and seeds, the predominant identified flavonoids are Kaempfero land Quercetin glycosides (glucosides, rutinosides, malonyl glucosides) (Saini et al., 2016). The Quercetin and Kaempferol concentrations in leaves range from 0.46-16.64 mg/g and 0.16-3.92 mg/g dry weight, respectively (Amaglo et al., 2010a; Bennett et al., 2003; Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). The presence of minor flavonols, such as myricetin (Sultana et al., 2009), rutin (Bajpai et al., 2005) and epicatechin (Ma et al., 2020) is also observed. Geographical disparities are documented for flavonoid profiles, reflecting cultivar-specific adaptations (Coppin et al., 2013). Niazimicin, a thiocarbamate glycoside, was found as a major bioactive component in both neuroprotective activity and antitumor activity, along with Niaziminin, a thiocarbamate isolated from leaves (Abdelsayed et al., 2021).
           
    Glucosinolates are a group of secondary metabolites derived from glucose and amino acids that contain nitrogen and sulfur. The most prevalentglucosinolateis identified as 4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl glucosinolate, commonly known as glucomoringin. Glucomoringin is primarily concentrated in seeds (up to 8,620 mg/100 g), followed by leaves (78 mg/100 g), stems, flowers and pods (Amaglo et al., 2010b; Maldini et al., 2014). Benzyl glucosinolate, also known as glucotropaeolin, a distinct structural variant, is primarily contained in the roots. Geographical disparities significantly influence glucosinolate profiles, with concentrations varying across cultivars and various areas (Bennett et al., 2003). Myrosinase-induced enzymatic hydrolysis of glucosinolates yields bioactive metabolites, including isothiocyanates, nitriles, thiocarbamates and glucose, all of which contribute to Moringa’s biochemical and pharmacological properties (Waterman et al., 2014). Three derivatives of thiocarbamate (TC) and isothiocyanate (ITC) exhibited antitumor activity prominently,4-[(4′-O-acetyl-α-irhamnosyloxy) benzyl],a naturally occurring isothiocyanate, implying that the isothiocyanate group is a crucial structural factor for activity (Jiwajinda, 1998).
     
    Carotenoids
     
    Carotenoids, a class of phytochemicals responsible for imparting vibrant red, yellow, or orange pigmentation to vegetables and fruits, are abundant in Moringa oleifera. Fresh leaves exhibit exceptionally high β-carotene (provitamin A) concentrations (6.6-17.4 mg/100 g), exceeding levels seenincarrots, apricots and pumpkins (Kidmose et al., 2006). Dried leaves demonstrate even greater β-carotene content, ranging from 23.31 to 39.6 mg/100 g of dry weight (Glover-Amengor et al., 2017; Joshi and Mehta, 2010). Beyond β-carotene, studies of Indian commercial cultivars identify diverse carotenoids in foliage, flowers and immature pods (Saini et al., 2016). All-E-lutein dominates these tissues, constituting over 50% of total carotenoid content, while minor constituents include all-E-luteoxanthin, 13-Z-lutein, all-E-zeaxanthin and 15-Z-β-carotene, detected at lower concentrations.
     
    Alkaloids
     
    Alkaloids, nitrogen-containing organic compounds biosynthesised through amino acid metabolic pathways, are relatively rare in Moringa oleifera. However, studies confirm the presence of specific alkaloids, with the indole alkaloid N,α-L-rhamnopyranosylvincosamide being the most frequently extracted from leaves (Cheraghi et al., 2017; Panda et al., 2013). Leaves show the presence of unique pyrrole alkaloid glycosides, including pyrrolemarumine 4′′ -O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (marumoside A) and 4′-hydroxyphenylethanamide (marumoside B), having distinctive structural configurations (Sahakitpichan et al., 2011). Table 2 represents the phytochemicals and their activities and Fig 1 shows the structure of the phytochemicals mentioned.

    Table 2: Phytochemicals and their activities shown in Moringa oleifera.



    Fig 1: Structures of selected bioactive compoundsfrom Moringa oleifera.


     
    Pharmacological attributes
     
    Antioxidant and antiperoxidative
     
    The antioxidant potential of Moringa oleiferais primarily attributed to the scavenging property of free radicals induced from radiation by antioxidants, such asphenolic compounds, ascorbic acid oxidase and vitamins A, C and E, as well as polyphenol oxidase, catalase, glycosidic glucosinolates, Isothiocyanates (ITCs), carbamates, nitriles and thiocarbamates (Fayazuddin and Kumar, 2013; Yang et al., 2006). Both the leaves and root extracts reportedantioxidant activity and radical scavenging activity (Singh et al., 2009; Sultana et al., 2009; Verma et al., 2009). This was supported by the prevention of oxidative damage exhibited by both young and mature leaves (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009) and adecreaseinthe OH-dependent damage byaqueous extracts of leaf, fruit and leaves (Singh et al., 2009). This aligns with the notable decrease in the level of hepatic marker enzymes and lipid peroxidation with an increase in the level of antioxidants (Ashok and Pari, 2003). Leaf extract demonstrated prevention of radiation-induced augmentation in hepatic lipid peroxidation and recovery of Glutathione in the liver (Sinha et al., 2012).
     
    Antiasthmatic activity
     
    Seed kernelsexhibitedanti- asthmatic activity through bronchodilator, mast cell stabilisation, showing efficacy comparable to the standard drug ketotifen (Mehta and Agrawal, 2008). The alcoholic extract of leaves suppressed the release of inflammatory mediators, including histamine and β-hexosaminidase, inhibited Mast cell degranulation and stabilised eosinophil count at varying levels compared to ketotifen fumarate (Abd Rani et al., 2019; Suresh et al., 2020; Palupi et al., 2021). Primary asthmatic symptoms showed a decrease alongside anotable increase in lung volumes and lung flow rates,thus validating the antiasthmatic activity.
     
    Anti-inflammatory activity
     
    Ethyl acetate fraction demonstrated potential anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the NF-κB signalling pathway activation, migration into the nucleus and the generation of various inflammatory proteins (Arulselvan et al., 2016). Aqueous extracts performed comparably to the anti-inflammatory drug, indomethacin, inhibiting carrageenan-induced oedema in rats (Ndiaye et al., 2002). Phytoconstituents such as Moringaisothiocyanate (MIC-1), including flavonoids, 4-hydroxymellein, β-sitosterol and vanillin are credited for the anti-inflammatory efficacy (Cheng et al., 2019).
     
    Anti-arthritic activity
     
    Methanolic extractof stem bark showed a dose-dependent pattern against all the models of inflammation (Formaldehyde and Freund’s adjuvant-induced) (Kumar et al., 2013). Ethanolic and aqueous extracts displayed significant reduction inCRP levels, arthritis score, paw thickness andpawoedemavolumecomparable with diclofenac sodium (Fatima and Fatima, 2016). The use of flower extractresulted in a collective decline of paw oedemavolume, inflammation at non-injected sites of the left hind paw, body weight, arthritic index and a reduction in the cytokines tumour necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1 andserum levels of Rheumatoid Factor (RF) (Kumar et al., 2013).
     
    Diuretic activity
     
    Dose-dependent saluretic action of alcoholic extract of leaves was observed against the hydrochlorothiazide group (Tahkur et al., 2016). Aqueous and alcoholicextracts of root bark considerably reduce dkidney retention levels of phosphate, oxalate and calcium and the urinary excretion (Karadi et al., 2008). Likewise, the aqueous seed extract increased urine output (Cáceres et al., 1992).
     
    Antimicrobial activity
     
    Antimicrobial efficacy of seeds is ascribed to lectinsthatbind to bacterial membranes, destabilise structural integrity and suppress microbial proliferation. Phenolic compounds present in leaves demonstrate efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens. N-benzylethylthioformate, a potent antifungal and antibacterial compound,is found in the roots, whereasflavonoids and phenolic acids present in fruitsshowed inhibition against clinically relevant microbial strains. Table 3 enlists the microbes and the parts of Moringa oleiferawhich show inhibition against the microbes (Dahiya and Purkayastha, 2012; Das et al., 2022; Moummou et al., 2024; Patel and Mohan, 2018; Raubilu et al., 2020).

    Table 3: Microbes and part of which show inhibition.


     
    Antitumor/anticancer activity
     
    Anticancer activity of Moringa oleiferahas been extensively researched and supported by various studies (Costa-Lotufo et al., 2005; Parvathy and Umamaheshwari, 2007). Compounds such as derivatives of thiocarbamate (TC) and isothiocyanate (ITC) and sterols were associated with the antitumour activity by inhibiting activation of tumour promoter-induced Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) (Jiwajinda, 1998). A two-stage model of 7, 12-dimethylbenzanthracene-induced skin papillomagenesis in mice was used to evaluate the chemoprotective efficacy of the hydro-alcoholic extract of drumsticks (Bharali et al., 2003). Despite promising in vitro data, clinical studies and in vivo experimentation are limited, highlighting a critical research gap.
     
    Antihypertensive and cardio-protective activity
     
    Seed protein hydrolysates and peptide fractions have shown antihypertensive effects, reducing blood pressure and heart rate (Randriamboavonjy et al., 2016), while leaf extracts exhibited cardioprotective effects against isoproterenol-induced myocardial damage (Nandave et al., 2009). Pharmacological evaluation attributed significant hypotensive effects to two nitrile glycosides (niazirin and niazirinin) and three mustard oil glycosides: 4-[(4′-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnosyloxy)benzyl] isothiocyanate (compound 4), niaziminin A and niaziminin B (Faizi et al., 1994).
     
    Hepatoprotective activity
     
    Ethanolic and crude aqueous extract of leaves was evaluated on drug inducedliver damage, with the alcoholic extract showing significant activity at a lower concentration compared to the aqueous extract (Pari and Kumar, 2002; Rameshvar et al., 2010). This aligns with the study on paracetamol-induced liver damage which reduced elevated liver enzyme level (Ranganathan et al., 2020). Fig 2 demonstrates various pharmacological properties exhibited by Moringa oleifera.

    Fig 2: Pharmacological properties of parts of Moringa oleifera.


     
    Antipyretic and analgesic activity
     
    The ethanolic and ethyl acetate extractswere found to showantipyretic effects in a dose-dependent pattern as compared to the standard against yeast-induced hyperpyrexia model (Hukkeri et al., 2006), similar to the hydro-alcoholic extract of bark (Ahmad et al., 2014). The methanolic extract of leaves was considered highest in antipyretic effect as compared to the bark and root extracts throughout various regions of Punjab, Pakistan (Jamil et al., 2024). The extracts from leaves, seeds and bark exhibited analgesic potency in a dose-dependent pattern in different pain models such as the hot plate method (centrally mediated) and the acetic acid-induced writhing method (peripherally mediated) (Abdul et al., 2021; Kumbhare and Sivakumar, 2011; Sachan, 2012; Sutar et al., 2008).
     
    Industrial uses
     
    Moringa oleifera seeds are identified as a prominent, viable natural coagulant against their synthetic counterparts, such as alum (Kalogo et al., 2000). Traditionally, crude seeds were utilised to treat highly turbid Nile water, eliminating 98-99% of indicator bacteria,as confirmed by a study (Muyibi and Evison, 1995), offering an economic and sustainable solution. Seed oilshowed potential as biodiesel production through transesterification  by the usage of different catalysts (Aqilah, 2013; Esmaeili et al., 2019), resultingin biodiesel exhibiting favourable properties (Haizum and Hassan, 2013). The production of rayon-grade pulp as a raw material for cellophane and textiles usage (Mahajan and Sharma, 1984) and the use of pulverised bark in ropes and mats manufacture demonstrate its industrial uses. Fig 3 illustrates other domestic uses of Moringa oleifera.
     
    Patents
     
    Moringa oleiferais known for itsutilisationin commercial applications, including pharmaceutical formulations, nutraceutical supplements andothersustainable products like water purifiers or cosmetics. Table 4 enlists a few patented innovations with their assigned patent number, year of approval and description.

    Table 4: Patents based on Moringa oleifera.


     
    Safety concerns and limitations
     
    Moringa oleifera is widely consumed as commercially available foods, nutraceutical supplements and other formulations across the market. Therefore, it is essential to thoroughly study the concerns regarding its safety. Numerous toxicological studies, including in vitro and animal studies, have assessed that leaves and seeds are safe for consumption within dietary limits. However, high doses or prolonged intake might show anadverse influence on some bodily functions and metabolic pathways. A maximum ingestion of 70g of Moringa oleifera is considered safe to prevent cumulative toxicity of the essential elements over extended intake. Bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, glucosinolates and isothiocyanates can cause dose-dependent toxicity in some cases. Extracts prepared using organic solvents have shown higher toxicity compared to aqueous extracts, suggesting that safety outcomes are significantly influenced by extraction methods. Antifertility effects of root and bark extracts have raised concerns over their use during pregnancy. Inadequate processing or bad agricultural practices result in contamination with heavy metalsor other adulterants, poses safety risks during handling. Despite its broad therapeutic ability, dosage recommendations, standard extraction procedures and quality control measures should be taken.

    CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

    The primary aim of this review was to systematically study the pharmacological propertiesand phytochemistry of Moringa oleiferaso as to provide a comprehensive study for multi-disciplinary research. It attempts to aggregate the majority of the recent studies and previous knowledge of therapeutic effects, bioactive compounds, nutritional value, or commercial value found in Moringa oleifera.
           
    Pre-existing research has assessed that it possesses numerous pharmacological activities, which are contributed by the phytoconstituents present in the different parts of the plant. But the need for clinical trials and strong scientific evidence regarding the mechanism of action of the proposed activities is crucial for future prospects in thecommercial sector. Moringa oleifera has substantial socio-economic significance throughout the globe due to its cost-effectiveness and high accessibility. It is documented to have regional and ethanobotanical regular usage traditionally across various cultures, which facilitates its introduction in theroutine diet, therefore enhancing nutrient intake. Thus shows great potential to be a ubiquitous nutraceutical supplement as the need for plant-based dietary supplements is increasing in the market. The accessible cultivation criteria, drought resistance and easy growing capability of Moringa oleifera should be utilised for large-scale production. It will help farmers reduce their dependency on water-demanding species, as well as provideraw material for Moringa supplements, thus generating income. Readily available products, such as dissolvable tablets, incorporation in snacks, can be a huge advantage as the market for healthy and ready-to-use goods is constantly increasing. Nevertheless, Moringa oleifera lives up to its name, “the miracle tree”, through the evidence provided in the review and has immense potential to influence the nutraceutical market.Further research in this field is required to integrate its availability in pharmaceutical and nutritional development.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors are thankful to the grant of Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Dehradun, Uttarakhand (UCOST) (UCOST-RND/5/2024UCOST-DPT-26324). The authors also thank theDepartment of Applied Chemistry and Basic Sciences and the Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, SBS University, for providing the space and facilities to carry out this work.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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