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Arvind kumar
Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural Uni., Jhansi, U.P., INDIA
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Exploiting Phytopathogenic Alternaria alternata and Alternaria macrospora for Management of Parthenium hysterophorus

Komal Sahu1, Kuldeep Kumar2, Bikram Jit Singh3, Anil K Sharma4, Rippin Sehgal5, Chhaya Singh6, Raj Singh1,*
  • https://orcid.org/0009-0002-7716-4081, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5378-6818, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7250-0165, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9768-1644, https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4026-5728, https://orcid.org/0000-000-9372-2349, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6331-9196
1Department of Bio-Sciences and Technology, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala-133 207, Haryana, India.
2Department of Botany, Vardhaman College, Bijnor-246 701, Uttar Pradesh, India.
3Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala-133 207, Haryana, India.
4Department of Biotechnology, Amity University, Mohali-140 306, Punjab, India.
5Department of Biotechnology, Ambala College of Engineering and Applied Research, Devsthali, Ambala-133 001, Haryana, India.
6Department of Botany, Government PG College, Thalisain, Pauri Garhwal-246 285, Uttarakhand, India.

Background: Parthenium hysterophorus is a fast-spreading invasive weed that poses serious challenges to agriculture and the environment due to its aggressive growth and allelopathic effects. The conventional use of mechanical or chemical methods for its control, often result in environmental hazards and some times limited effectiveness of these methods. As a sustainable alternative, biological management using pathogenic fungi is gaining attention due to its specificity and ecological safety.

Methods: The study aimed to isolate and evaluate pathogenic fungi from infected Parthenium plants to assess their potential as biological control agents. Four fungal isolates were collected from naturally infected Parthenium plants and tested for pathogenicity on Parthenium, using the disc plate technique under controlled laboratory conditions.

Result: Results revealed that Alternaria macrospora strain PHMMU1 exhibited the highest disease incidence (67.27%) and most severe defoliation, followed by Alternaria alternata strain PHMMU2 (50.06%), A. macrospora strain PHMMU3 (40.70%) and A. macrospora strain PHMMU4 (35.18%). All isolates fulfilled Koch’s postulates, confirming their pathogenicity. The findings highlight the potential of Alternaria spp., particularly A. macrospora, as effective mycoherbicides for the sustainable management of Parthenium hysterophorus, supporting integrated weed management strategies and environmental conservation efforts.

Invasive alien plant species pose critical threats to global biodiversity, agricultural productivity and ecosystem stability (Rai, 2022). These species often outcompete native flora and crops for growth factors like light, nutrients, space, soil moisture etc. due to their rapid growth, adaptability to changing environmental conditions and prolific seed production (Kashyap et al., 2022; Bhattacharya et al., 2025). Among them, Parthenium hysterophorus L., known as Congress grass, carrot weed or bitter weed, is one of the most aggressive (Singh et al., 2023). It is an annual herbaceous weed known for its toxicity and rapid growth. Belonging to the Asteraceae family, Parthenium is native to tropical and subtropical Americas, Mexico and the southern USA (Rana, 2022), but has spread widely across Asia, Africa and Australia, owing to its prolific reproduction, adaptability and human-mediated dispersal (Kaur et al., 2021; Strathie et al., 2021; Adhikari et al., 2023). This weed severely impacts native flora, ecosystems and human and animal health (Sarita et al., 2024). It causes up to 80% yield loss in agriculture, triggers allergic reactions such as dermatitis and asthma and adversely affects livestock, leading to reduced milk production and health issues (Mao et al., 2021; Sharma and Kumawat, 2023). Its allelopathic properties suppress the growth of nearby vegetation, further diminishing agricultural productivity (Dheer et al., 2023). Infestation in croplands, pastures, roadsides and wastelands leads to arable land degradation and economic losses, estimated at AUD 109 million annually in rangelands (Chhogyel et al., 2021; Shabbir et al., 2020). Traditional control strategies-mechanical, chemical and cultural-have shown limited long-term success. Mechanical removal, like hand weeding is common but this method is labour-intensive and often ineffective due to rapid regrowth during peak times (Meena et al., 2022), while chemical herbicides may harm non-target organisms, promote resistance and cause environmental contamination (Bashar et al., 2021; Bogale and Tolossa, 2021; Madrewar et al., 2024). These drawbacks underscore the urgent need for environmentally sound alternatives. Biological control, employing living organisms to suppress invasive weeds, presents a promising long-term solution (Bekeko, 2021; Petraki et al., 2024). Biocontrol agents such as insects, nematodes and microbes have been explored globally (Rani et al., 2021; Nagar et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2022; Sahu et al., 2024). Notable insect biocontrol agents include Bucculatrix parthenica, Carmenta ithacae, Conotrachelus albocinereus, Epiblema strenuana, Listronotus setosipennis, Platphalonidia mystica, Semicronyx lutulentus and Zygogramma bicolorata (Khan and Fahad, 2020; Samanta et al., 2021; Madrewar et al., 2024; Sarita et al., 2024).
       
Among microbial agents, phytopathogenic fungi offer advantages such as high infectivity, host specificity, mass producibility and compatibility with integrated weed management (Singh and Pandey 2019; Peng et al., 2021; Sharma, 2021). Fungi like Puccinia abrupta var. partheniicola, P. melampodi, Entyloma compositarum, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium oxysporum, Colletotrichum spp., Aspergillus spp., Drechslera spp. and Valsa mali have shown varying levels of efficacy against Parthenium (Dukpa et al., 2020; Ahmad et al., 2020; Maharjan et al., 2020;  Ocán-Torres et al., 2024; Sheikh et al., 2020; Tsehaye and Semere, 2023). Mycoherbicides-fungal agents used similarly to chemical herbicides-can effectively manage invasive weeds in both agricultural and non-agricultural contexts (Sırrı and Özaslan, 2023; Aneja, 2024). This study aims to isolate and characterize fungal pathogens, particularly Alternaria alternata and A. macrospora, from infected Parthenium plants and evaluate their pathogenicity. The findings may support the integration of biological control into weed management strategies, contributing to agricultural sustainability, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration.
Sample collection and preparation
 
Fresh infected Parthenium hysterophorus leaves were aseptically? Please explain collected from Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University) (Mullana), Ambala and nearby areas, by using clean sterilized tools and sterile collection bags to minimize contamination. After surface sterilization with ethanol and sodium hypochlorite and rinsing with sterile water, samples were dried in a laminar airflow chamber and used for fungal isolation (Ahmad et al., 2020). The experimental work was conducted from January 2023 to December 2024.
 
Isolation of fungi from Parthenium plants
 
Fungal pathogens were isolated from sterilized Parthenium leaf segments on PDA with streptomycin at a concentration of 100 mg/L to suppress bacterial contamination? How much. After 5-7 days of incubation at 25°C, emerging colonies were subcultured for purity by placing 6 mm mycelial discs onto fresh PDA plates with the help of sterile corkborer and placed for incubation at 25°C? Please explain. Pure cultures were stored on PDA slants at 4°C and in glycerol stocks at -20°C in the Department of Bio-Sciences and Technology for future use (Karim et al., 2018).
 
Identification and molecular characterization of pathogenic fungi
 
Fungal identification was based on colony morphology and microscopic examination using lactophenol cotton blue staining (Patyal et al., 2024). For molecular characterization, DNA was extracted and 18S rRNA along with the ITS region were amplified using ITS1 and ITS4 primers. PCR products were sequenced, followed by BLAST analysis and phylogenetic tree construction to confirm species identity through sequence similarity with known fungal taxa (Sahu et al., 2025).
 
Pathogenicity of fungal strains
 
The disc plate technique assessed fungal pathogenicity by placing 8 mm discs from week-old cultures on petri dish lids. Six-week-old sterilized Parthenium leaves on moist filter paper were incubated at 28-30°C for 72 hours. Spore dispersal led to disease symptoms, which were observed after three days (Singh, 2020). The disease incidence percentage was evaluated through the following method.
  
 
 
Statistical analysis
 
Each experiment was conducted in triplicates. The statistical analysis was carried out using the SPSS software, version 21. Experimental results were analysed following appropriate methods such as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis. Critical differences were computed at the p = 0.05 level after single-way ANOVA.
In the MMU region of Ambala, Parthenium hysterophorus was affected by leaf spot diseases caused by four fungal isolates cultured on PDA. Morphological and microscopic analysis identified them as Alternaria species with distinct variations (Pavicich et al., 2022). Molecular characterization via 18S rRNA gene sequencing and ITS region PCR confirmed isolates as Alternaria alternata strain PHMMU2 and three Alternaria macrospora strains (PHMMU1, PHMMU3, PHMMU4) (Table 1). Sequences were submitted to NCBI GenBank (PQ483096, PQ433119, PQ483101, PQ483102). Phylogenetic analysis validated these identifications (Fig 1). Pathogenicity was tested using the Parthenium disc plate technique (Fig 2). Spore germination occurred within 24 hours on healthy leaves, with maximum leaf defoliation at 72 hours (25±5°C). Alternaria macrospora PHMMU1 caused the highest disease incidence (67.27%), followed by A. alternata PHMMU2 (50.06%), A. macrospora PHMMU3 (40.70%) and PHMMU4 (35.18%). Re-isolation confirmed their identity, fulfilling Koch’s postulates and establishing pathogenicity to Parthenium hysterophorus.

Table 1: List of isolated fungi used in the research with their accession number.



Fig 1: Phylogenetic trees of (a) PHMMU1 (b) PHMMU2 (c) PHMMU3 and (d) PHMMU4.



Fig 2: (a) Fungal strains isolated from infected Parthenium leaves (b) Release of spores from fungal culture discs and invasion into leaves and (c) Disease incidence on Parthenium leaves after 72 hours of incubation.


 
Statistical analysis
 
Four fungal isolates (PHMMU1–PHMMU4) were tested for pathogenicity against Parthenium hysterophorus using the disc plate method. Disease progression, including necrotic lesions and leaf degradation, varied among strains over 72 hours. Multiple regression analysed the effects of incubation time and fungal strain on disease incidence, while ANOVA confirmed significant differences in virulence, validating the observed infection patterns.
 
Evaluation of disease incidence through multiple regression
 
Multiple regression analysis assessed the impact of incubation time and fungal isolates on Parthenium hysterophorus disease incidence. The model showed a strong fit (high R2) and significant predictors (p<0.05). Disease incidence increased with time, especially for isolate PHMMU1, which had the highest infection rates-from 33.21% at 24 hours to 67.27% at 72 hours-demonstrating its strong virulence. These results confirm incubation time’s significant role in disease progression and validate PHMMU1 as the most pathogenic isolate (Fig 3).

Fig 3: Multiple regression analysis of disease incidence.


 
Multiple regression model building report
 
The multiple regression model predicting Parthenium hysterophorus disease incidence was developed using incubation time (X1) and fungal isolate (X2) as predictors (Fig 4). The fungus variable (X2) contributed most, increasing adjusted R2 to 50.06%. Adding incubation time (X1) improved the model accuracy to 99.84%. Including the interaction term (X1*X2) further raised adjusted R² to 99.99%, indicating a strong synergistic effect. All predictors were statistically significant (p<0.05). The incremental impact chart showed fungus had the highest contribution, followed by incubation time, with their interaction enhancing model performance. Regression models for each isolate revealed quadratic disease progression over time, characterized by a negative squared time coefficient (-0.002951), showing an initial increase then decline in severity. Alternaria macrospora PHMMU1 had the highest linear coefficient (1.5569), indicating the fastest, most severe infection, followed by PHMMU2 (1.3604), PHMMU3 (1.1569) and PHMMU4 (1.0951). The control group exhibited minimal disease incidence (0.2833), confirming the isolates’ pathogenic effectiveness (Table 2).

Fig 4: Model building report for multiple regression analysis of disease incidence.



Table 2: Multiple regression equations for disease incidence (%).


 
Analysis of pathogenicity using ANOVA
 
The significance of one-way ANOVA lies in its ability to detect and validate statistical differences in disease incidence among fungal isolates, enabling a reliable interpretation of their pathogenic potential. This statistical method was chosen to evaluate whether the observed variation in pathogenic effects among the treatments was statistically significant. The results revealed notable differences in the degree of infection produced by each isolate, indicating that the effectiveness of the fungal strains in inducing disease symptoms varied considerably. This analysis provides clear evidence supporting the differential virulence of the tested isolates.

Effect of fungal treatments on disease incidence
 
One-way ANOVA showed a highly significant difference in disease incidence among fungal treatments (f = 15.10; p = 0.001). The control had no symptoms (0.00%), while all fungal treatments significantly increased disease. A. macrospora PHMMU1 caused the highest incidence (67.27%), followed by A. alternata PHMMU2 (50.06%), PHMMU3 (40.70%) and PHMMU4 (35.18%). The results highlight PHMMU12’s strong pathogenicity, with moderate variability within treatments (SD = 19.14) but consistent differences across groups (Fig 5).

Fig 5: Error bar plot showing the effect of different fungal treatments on disease incidence.


 
Dunnett multiple comparisons with control
 
Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test further substantiated the significance of these findings. Each fungal treatment group (PHMMU4, PHMMU3, PHMMU2 and PHMMU1) was found to be significantly different from the control group at the 95% confidence level (p<0.05). Notably, the control group was distinctly separated in grouping from all fungal treatments, confirming that disease incidence following fungal inoculation was not due to random variation but was attributable to treatment effects (Fig 6). The data indicate a dose-response-like trend where certain fungal isolates, particularly A. macrospora strain PHMMU1, induced more aggressive disease symptoms compared to others.

Fig 6: Dunnett’s multiple comparison plot showing the 95% confidence intervals for mean differences in disease incidence between each fungal treatment and the control group.


 
Effect of incubation time on disease incidence
 
The effect of incubation duration on disease incidence was also evaluated through a separate one-way ANOVA. Analysis revealed a statistically significant difference among the three incubation periods (f = 9.30; p = 0.001), indicating that the length of incubation played a critical role in disease progression. Mean disease incidence was observed to increase substantially with longer incubation times (Fig 7). At 24 hours post-inoculation, the mean disease incidence was relatively low (18.70%). However, after 48 hours, the mean incidence nearly doubled to 39.77% and further increased to 57.45% at 72 hours. This stepwise increase suggests a time-dependent enhancement in disease severity, with the most substantial disease symptoms manifesting at the longest incubation period tested. The pooled standard deviation for the incubation time analysis was 24.64, indicating a moderate spread of disease incidence values within each incubation group. However, the distinct upward trend across 24, 48 and 72 hours indicates that prolonged exposure significantly facilitates fungal pathogen establishment and symptoms development.

Fig 7: Error bar plot showing the effect of incubation time on disease incidence.


       
Taken together, the results clearly demonstrate that both fungal treatment and incubation time are critical determinants of disease incidence. The highest disease severity was observed when the most aggressive fungus (A. macrospora strain PHMMU1) was combined with the longest incubation time (72 hours), highlighting a synergistic effect between pathogen virulence and environmental conditions favouring disease progression.       
       
This study identified four fungal isolates as pathogenic to Parthenium hysterophorus under in-vitro conditions. Among them, Alternaria macrospora strain PHMMU1 exhibited the highest virulence, with a 67.27% disease incidence, rapid spore germination within 24 hours and maximum leaf defoliation by 72 hours, suggesting a highly efficient infection cycle. These findings indicate its strong potential as a promising candidate for mycoherbicide development. The results align with earlier studies, such as those by Kaur and Kumar (2019), Kumar et al., (2021),  Kausar et al. (2022) which demonstrated the effectiveness of A. macrospora MKP1 against Parthenium. Singh (2020) also reported Fusarium, Alternaria, Cephalosporium and Cladosporium species as pathogens, with F. equiseti showing the highest defoliation. Similarly, Naseem et al., (2016) found Nigrospora oryzae to induce severe symptoms in Parthenium. Overall, these findings support the potential of Alternaria and other fungal pathogens as biocontrol agents in integrated weed management.
This study focused on isolating and identifying four fungal pathogens (of which fungus name please) (Alternaria alternata and three strains of Alternaria macrospora) from naturally infected Parthenium hysterophorus plants and evaluating their pathogenic potential under laboratory conditions. Among these, Alternaria macrospora strain PHMMU1 showed the highest virulence, with significant leaf defoliation, establishing it as a promising bioherbicidal agent. The isolates fulfilled Koch’s postulates, confirming their pathogenicity and potential for development as mycoherbicides. These results highlight the effectiveness of Alternaria  alternata and Alternaria macrospora ? name of species, particularly Alternaria macrospora  (PHMMU1), as environmentally friendly alternatives to chemical or mechanical methods of controlling Parthenium weed. The adoption of such biocontrol agents aligns with sustainable agricultural practices and integrated weed management strategies. Further research should include large-scale field trials, development of suitable formulations and host-specificity testing to ensure safety and effectiveness. Successful implementation of these fungi as biocontrol agents can reduce the ecological and economic impacts of Parthenium hysterophorus, while promoting biodiversity, environmental sustainability and long-term resilience of agro-ecosystems.
The authors extend their sincere gratitude to Adesh Kumar Saini, Head of the Department of Bio-Sciences and Technology at Maharishi Markandeshwar (Deemed to be University), Mullana, Ambala (Haryana), India, for providing access to essential resources and laboratory facilities, which greatly contributed to the successful completion of this research.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
No any approval required by the University of Animal Care Committee.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
 

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