Optimization of synthesis parameters by box-behnken design
The biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles was evaluated by response surface methodology based on a Box- Behnken Design involving five independent variables: silver nitrate concentration (A), leaf extract volume (B), reaction temperature (C), pH (D) and reaction time (E). The aim was to maximize nanoparticle yield, measured by absorbance at 424 nm (SPR peak). A total of 46 experimental runs were gene rated and executed. Maximum absorbance value (1.8198) was recorded at the following optimal conditions: 87.5 ml of 10 mM silver nitrate, 12.5 ml leaf extract, 37.5°C, pH 7 and 120 minutes reaction time. (Fig 2A). This significant enhancement in absorbance indicates a high concentration of well-dispersed silver nanoparticles.
The model equation to predict the absorbance was also predicted as follows:
Absorbance=+1.54+0.3443A+0.0595+0.0425C+0.4045D +0.4648E+0.1029AB+0.0142AC+0.1 228A+0.2573AE0.063 5BC0.0584BD+0.0002BE+0.0491CD+0.0132CE+0.1156DE-0.3899A2-0.3843B
2-0.2719C
2- 0.2812D2-0.3194E
2
This model was deemed significant at a p-value of 0.0001 with an F-value of 67.53. ANOVA for this model suggested that A, B, D, E, AB, AD, AE, DE, A
2, B
2, C
2, D
2, E
2 were the significant terms at a 95% confidence interval. This equation was further modified eliminating the insignificant terms to decrease the model redundancy as follows:
Absorbance=+1.54+0.3443A+0.0595+0.0425C +0.4014D+0.4648E+0.1029AB+0.1228AD+0.2573AE+0.1156D E-0.3899A
2-0.3843B
2-0.2719C
2-0.2812D
2-0.3194E
2
The model appears to be significant, as per the Reduced Model F-value that comes to be 99.59. Such an enormous F-value could only be the result of noise in 0.01% of cases. The significance of the individual terms can be observed in Table 1. According to the obtained model, the highest value of coefficient is predicted for time factor (E), which corresponds to an increase in absorbance with an increase in time. This was also observed in the batch experiments, where increasing the time to 120 minutes correlated to an increased absorbance (
Wirwis and Sadowski, 2024). According to the predicted model, the second-order terms for all the factors show a curvilinear relationship (concave parabolic curve) demonstrating the quadratic effect. This is deemed true for the experimental results as well for all the factors.
The observed colour change from yellowish-green to dark brown within one hour during synthesis under optimized conditions further confirmed nanoparticle formation, attributed to surface plasmon resonance. These findings align with previously reported studies, demonstrating time and pH-dependent nucleation and stabilization of silver nanoparticles in green synthesis systems (Fig 1A-J)
(Singhal et al., 2024).
Characterization of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles
UV-visible spectroscopy
The UV–Vis spectral analysis of the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles exhibited a prominent surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peak at 424 nm (Fig 2B), indicative of the successful reduction of Agz ions to elemental Agp by bioactive phytochemicals present in
Celosia cristata extract. The sharp and symmetric nature of the SPR band suggests a narrow particle size distribution and predominantly spherical morphology. The time-dependent increase in absorbance intensity reflects the progressive nucleation and growth kinetics of the nanoparticles. These findings are consistent with previous reports on green-synthesized AgNPs, where SPR peaks typically occur within the 410-450 nm range, influenced by nanoparticle size, shape and capping agents derived from plant metabolites, thus reinforcing their role in facilitating both reduction and stabilization during nanoparticle formation
(Shweqa et al., 2024).
X-ray diffraction (XRD)
X-Ray Diffraction analysis provided further structural confirmation of the synthesized nanoparticles. Diffractogram exhibited distinct Bragg reflections at 2θ= 38.30°, 44.51°, 64.48° and 77.61°, corresponding to the (111), (200), (220) and (311) lattice planes of a face- centered cubic (FCC) silver crystal (JCPDS file no. 31–1238) (
Mehdi Zabihi et al., 2024). The prominence of the (111) reflection indicates it as the dominant crystalline facet which is typical for biosynthesized silver nanoparticles. No secondary peaks corresponding to impurities or silver oxide phases were observed confirming high phase purity. The sharpness of the peaks also suggests high crystallinity (Fig 2C). These findings affirm that the silver nanoparticles are formed with minimal by-products, reflecting efficient reduction and stabilization facilitated by plant metabolites
(Hermanto et al., 2024).
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy was used to identify the functional groups responsible for reducing and capping the silver nanoparticles. The broad peak around 3415 cm-1 corresponds to O-H or N-H stretching vibrations, indicative of alcohols or amines. Peaks at 2930 and 2912 cm
-1 relate to aliphatic C-H stretching
(Tesfaye et al., 2023), while a sharp peak at 1581 cm
-1 signifies C=C aromatic ring vibrations (
Moges and Misskire, 2025). Additional bands at 1314 and 1236 cm
-1 indicate the presence of C-N stretching (amines) and sulfate or phosphate groups
(Thakur et al., 2024). These results imply the presence of multiple bioactive compounds, including terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids and proteins, which function as reducing and stabilizing agents (Fig 2D). Their involvement in nanoparticle synthesis confirm the green basis of this work, with biomolecules simultaneously acting as reductants and capping agents to prevent agglomeration.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
Transmission Electron Microscopy analysis confirmed the morphology and size distribution of the synthesized nanoparticles. Images showed predominantly spherical nanoparticles with smooth edges and minimal aggregation. The average particle diameter was measured to be approximately 22 nm. The ImageJ software was used for precise size measurements and high-resolution. TEM revealed distinct lattice fringes confirming the crystalline nature of the particles. The selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern further validated the crystalline structure showing diffraction rings that corresponded to the face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice of silver. This structural pattern aligns with prior studies reporting FCC formation in biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles (Fig 2E, F and G). The particle size distribution histogram showed that most nanoparticles were within a narrow size range, highlighting the uniformity of the synthesis process which is an advantageous in biological, catalytic and environmental fields
(Kumar et al., 2025).
Antimicrobial studies of silver nanoparticles
Agar well diffusion assay
The antimicrobial potential of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles was evaluated using agar well diffusion against phytopathogens
A.
solani,
F.
graminearum and
X.
oryzae. The silver nanoparticles exhibited potent antimicrobial activity with inhibition zones ranging from 20 to 29 mm. Notably
A.
solani exhibited the highest sensitivity (29 mm) followed by
F.
graminearum (27 mm) and
X.
oryzae (22 mm). In contrast, the leaf extract alone showed no inhibitory effect indicating that the antimicrobial activity arises specifically from the silver nanoparticles (Fig 3). Compared to the chemical fungicide carbendazim which produced inhibition zones between 22-27 mm, the silver nanoparticles displayed comparable or superior efficacy particularly against fungal strains (Table 2). The enhanced activity is likely due to the nanoscale size and high surface area of the silver nanoparticles facilitating interaction with microbial membranes.
Minimum inhibitory and bactericidal/fungicidal concentrations
Minimum inhibition concentration, minimum bactericidal concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration were determined to quantify the antimicrobial potency of silver nanoparticles. MIC values ranged from 0.0781 to 0.625 mg/ml.
A.
solani exhibited the lowest MIC (0.0781 mg/ml), followed by
F.
graminearum (0.1562 mg/ml) and
X.
oryzae (0.625 mg/ml). MBC and MFC values were generally double than MIC values, indicating a bactericidal/fungicidal mode of action. Complete inhibition of microbial growth was observed at concentrations of 0.1562-5 mg/ml for
A.
solani, 0.1562-5
F.
graminearum and 0.625-5 mg/ml for
X.
oryzae (Table 3). These results confirm that the biosynthesized silver nanoparticles are not merely growth inhibitors but also exhibit lethal effects against pathogenic microorganisms. There are various mechanisms by which silver nanoparticles against antimicrobial effects remains multifactorial
(Kumar et al., 2025). Possible modes of action include: Disruption of microbial cell membranes through physical contact and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), release of silver ions (Ag+), which interfere with cellular enzymes, DNA replication and protein synthesis. Induction of oxidative stress leads to apoptosis or necrosis in microbial cells
(Soyucok et al., 2024).The small particle size enhances surface reactivity, allowing the nanoparticles to attach to and penetrate microbial membranes more efficiently
(Nasirvand et al., 2023). Furthermore, plant-derived capping agents may synergize with silver nanoparticles to enhance bioavailability and stability
(Rana et al., 2023; Sadeghi-kiakhani et al., 2025).