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Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Short Communication

Factors Affecting Birth and Weaning Weights in Korean Indigenous Breed Calves

H
Huimang Song1,#
S
Seungmin Ha1,#
S
Seyoung Lee1
N
Namtae Kim1
J
Jae-Yeong Lee1,2
C
Chan-Lan Kim1,3
D
Daehyeok Jin1,4
S
Sang-Rae Cho1,5
Y
Yeoung-Gyu Ko1,*
M
Mi-Ryung Park1,*
1Animal Genetic Resources Research Center, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Hamyang 50000, Republic of Korea.
2Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea.
3Department of Animal Resource Development, Dairy Science Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Cheonan 31000, Republic of Korea.
4Research Management Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea.
5Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Agricultural Life Sciences, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea.

ABSTRACT

Background: Understanding the factors that affect calf growth performance can enhance productivity in the cattle industry. This study investigated the effects of breed and sex, the difference between the date of birth and the estimated due date (DBE, gestation length), birth seasons, dam parity and age on body weight at birth and weaning in calves of Korean indigenous cattle breeds. Additionally, the correlation between body weight and body measurements at weaning was assessed.

Methods: A total of 246 calves (Hanwoo, n=136; White Hanwoo, n=42; Chikso, n=41; and Heugu, n=27) born between January 2016 and June 2023 were used in this study. All calves were raised with their dams until weaning. Multiple linear regression (MLR) was employed to evaluate the effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, dam parity and dam age on birth and weaning weight. Correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between body weight and body measurements at weaning.

Result: Breed, sex, DBE and birth season significantly affected both birth and weaning weights (p<0.05). Hanwoo calves were the heaviest at birth, followed by Heugu, Chikso and White Hanwoo; at weaning, the order was Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu. Male calves were heavier than females at both stages (p<0.05). Calves born after the estimated due date were heavier at birth and weaning (p<0.05). Calves born in summer had higher birth weights, while those born in winter had higher weaning weights (p<0.05). Dam parity did not affect birth weight (p=0.318) but significantly influenced weaning weight (p=0.028), with higher parity associated with greater weaning weight. Birth weight was a significant predictor of weaning weight (p<0.001). Weaning weight showed strong positive correlations with chest girth (r=0.939), body length (r=0.827), withers height (r=0.816), rump height (r=0.814), pelvic width (r=0.788), rump width (r=0.782), chest width (r=0.752) and chest depth (r=0.714).

INTRODUCTION

Cattle productivity is a crucial aspect of the sustainable cattle industry. Previous studies have demonstrated how cattle productivity can be improved through various aspects such as genetics, nutrition and meat science (Snelling et al., 2019; Luebbe et al., 2019; Andreo et al., 2019). The body weight of heifers is closely associated with their birth weight (Hurst et al., 2021). Cattle with increased growth rates in early life may calve earlier, produce more milk and can be raised at lower costs (Chester-Jones et al., 2017; Davis et al., 2011; Shamay et al., 2005). Therefore, understanding the factors that influence birth and weaning weights is imperative for optimizing management practices in the cattle industry.
       
Both genetic and nongenetic factors influence birth and weaning weights (Szabó et al., 2006; Riley et al., 2007; Rezende et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2025). Breeding is considered a primary factor affecting birth and weaning weights (Szabó et al., 2006; Rezende et al., 2020). Furthermore, cross-mating high-performance breeds is often used to improve productivity (Favero et al., 2019). Other factors, including the sex of calves and the repro-ductive characteristics of dams, such as age, parity and gestation length, also influence calf weight (Szabó et al., 2006; Riley et al., 2007; Rezende et al., 2020; Cho et al., 2021; Duncan et al., 2023). Moreover, environmental conditions, including birth season and rearing conditions, influence weight (Almeida et al., 2023). Although previous studies have reported significant effects of these factors on birth and weaning weights in calves, the results have not been consistent across studies, varying by factors such as region and breed. Therefore, these inconsistencies indicate the need for further investigations across diverse breeds and environmental conditions. In Korea, Hanwoo is the dominant beef cattle breed, representing the majority of domestic beef supply. According to recent reports, the national beef self-sufficiency rate was approximately 40-41% in 2023-2024 and Hanwoo beef constitutes a substantial portion of this production. This underscoring its critical role in the Korean cattle industry (Hanwoo Board, 2024; Lee et al., 2025). Nevertheless, other indigenous breeds such as White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu also represent valuable genetic resources that require further attention for conservation and utilization.
       
To the best of our knowledge, no comprehensive study has simultaneously addressed various factors affecting birth and weaning weights in Korean indigenous cattle (Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu). We aimed to identify the effects of various factors on the birth and weaning weights of indigenous Korean cattle breeds by simultaneously analyzing multiple factors.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Animals
 
A total of 246 indigenous Korean breed calves (Hanwoo, n=136; White Hanwoo, n=42; Chikso, n=41; Heugu, 27) used in this study were born between January 2016 and June 2023 and raised with their dams until weaning. The calves were clinically healthy from birth until weaning. Body measurements were performed on 167 calves (Hanwoo, n=89; White Hanwoo, n=28; Chikso, n=26; Heugu, n=24) between February 2018 and June 2023, when the calves were weaned. The animals suckled the teats of their dams for colostrum and milk, began to be fed concentrates and hay at 30 days of age and were weaned at 90 days of age. All calves were born and raised at the Animal Genetic Resources Research Center, National Institute of Animal Science (Hamyang, Republic of Korea). They were kept with their dams in individual pens until weaning and both calves and dams were maintained under a uniform management and feeding system. Clean water and mineral blocks were available ad libitum. The housing facilities were based on an open housing system designed to maintain proper ventilation, natural lighting and hygiene. The local climate is classified as temperate and seasonal changes were managed through appropriate ventilation and water supply adjustments. There was no variation between farms or management practices, ensuring data homogeneity.
 
Data collection
 
We collected data related to the calves, including breed (Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu) sex, the difference between the date of birth and estimated due date (DBE), birth seasons, age and parity of their dam, birth weight and body measurements at 90 days of age. The body measurements included body weight, withers height, rump height, body length, chest depth, chest width, rump length, rump width, pelvic width, hipbone width and chest girth. The calving seasons were grouped as spring (March to May), summer (June to August), autumn (September to November), or winter (December to February).
 
Statistical analyses
 
Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS software (SPSS 27.0, IBM-SPSS INC, Chicago, IL, USA). We performed multiple linear regression (MLR) analyses to assess the effects of breed, sex, DBE, dam age, dam parity and birth season on birth weight. In addition, we evaluated the effects of birth weight including those on birth weight at weaning. A dummy conversion was applied to breed, sex and birth season.
The fitted regression equation is as follows:


Where the regression coefficients (constants) b1, b2,…, bn represent the independent contributions of each independent variable x1, x2,… xn for evaluating the effects of these factors on body weight. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Multicollinearity among independent variables was examined using tolerance and variance inflation factors to conduct the MLR analysis. Tolerance above 0.1 and a variance inflation factor (VIF) of less than 10 indicate no multicollinearity. The Durbin–Watson (D–W) statistic ranged from 1 to 3, confirming that there was no autocorrelation between errors.
       
Pearson’s correlation test was used to determine the correlations between body measurements at weaning. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was represented as r ≥ 0.7, strong correlation; 0.5 ≤ r < 0.7, moderate correlation; 0.3 ≤ r < 0.5, weak correlation; and r < 0.3, no correlation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth seasons, age and parity of dam on birth weight
 
The results from the MLR model were significant in identifying the effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, age and parity of the dam on birth weight (F=14.166, p<0.001) (Table 1). The explanatory power of the MLR model was 37.6% (R2=0.376, adj R2=0.350). The tolerance, VIF and D–W statistic results indicated no multicollinearity and no autocorrelation between the errors. Significance testing of the regression coefficients revealed that breed, sex, DBE and birth in summer influenced birth weight (p<0.05). White Hanwoo breed (β=-0.404) had the largest impact, followed by Chikso breed (β=-0.347), DBE (β=0.25), sex (β=0.229), Heugu (β=-0.118) and birth in summer (β=0.117). In terms of breed, White Hanwoo (β=-0.404), Chikso (β=-0.347) and Heugu (β=-0.118) calves were born with less weight than Hanwoo calves. Additionally, calves were born later than the estimated due date in summer and a male calf had considerable weight at birth.

Table 1: Effects of breed, sex, birth date, birth season, dam parity and age on birth weight of indigenous Korean breed calves.



Effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, age and parity of dam and birth weight on weaning weight
 
The MLR model was used to identify the effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, age and parity of dam and birth weight was statistically significant (F=14.209, p<0.001) (Table 2). The MLR model explanatory power of 50.2% (R2=0.502,adj R2=0.467). Multicollinearity and autocorrelation between errors were not identified. Breed, sex, DBE, winter birth, dam parity and birth weight significantly influenced weaning weight (p<0.05). Birth weight (β=0.413) had the largest impact, followed by dam parity (β=0.312), Heugu (β=-0.283), Chikso (β=-0.274), birth in winter (β=0.27), White Hanwoo (β=-0.248), DBE (β=0.151) and sex (β=0.147). Calves with heavy weights at birth weighed much more at weaning. Furthermore, high-parity cows delivered and raised heavier calves. Hanwoo weighed more at weaning than White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu. Calves that were born in winter, later than the estimated due date and male calves weighed more at weaning.

Table 2: Effects of breed, sex, birth date, birth season, dam parity and age and birth weight on weaning weight of indigenous Korean breed calves.


 
Correlation between body measurements at weaning
 
We investigated the correlations between body weight, withers height, rump height, body length, chest depth, chest width, rump length, rump width, pelvic width, hipbone width and chest girth at weaning (Table 3). Body weight at weaning strongly correlated with chest girth (r=0.939), body length (r=0.827), withers height (r=0.816), rump height (r=0.814), pelvic width (r=0.788), rump width (r=0.782), chest width (r=0.752) and chest depth (r=0.714). The correlations between body weight at weaning and rump length (r=0.610) and hipbone width (r=0.596) were moderate (p<0.001). Strong correlations were identified between withers and rump heights (r=0.998) and between rump and pelvic width (r=0.879).

Table 3: Correlation between weaning weights and body measurement.


       
In the present study, breed, sex, DBE and season (summer) were associated with birth weight in indigenous Korean cattle. Furthermore, breed, sex, DBE, season (winter), dam parity and birth weight were associated with their weaning weight, which was strongly correlated with chest girth, body length, withers height, rump height, pelvic width, rump width, chest width and depth.
       
The findings of the current study are consistent with those of previous studies that identified the effects of breed, sex and DBE on birth and weaning weights in indigenous Korean cattle breeds. Choi et al., (2015) reported that breed affects birth and weaning weight; this study compared White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu, except for most indigenous Korean cattle breeds, Hanwoo. The current study is the first to report that Hanwoo cattle are heavier than other Korean indigenous cattle breeds at birth and weaning. Moreover, as in a previous study, male calves were heavier than female calves at birth and at weaning (Kayastha et al., 2008; Park et al., 2022). Gestational length is associated with weight at birth and weaning (Hwang et al., 2008, Coleman et al., 2021).
       
Although the effects of birth season on birth and weaning weights are controversial owing to various factors, such as rearing and pasture conditions, several studies have verified the effects of birth season in cattle (Szabó et al., 2006; Wakchaure and Meena, 2010; Cho et al., 2021; Park et al., 2022). In this study, we observed that calves born in summer were heavier at birth and those born in winter were heavier at weaning. One of the possible explanations for seasonal effects may be the fluctuation in cattle hormones, such as insulin and glucagon. Insulin concentrations in dairy cattle are higher in winter than in summer (Herbein et al., 1985; De Rensis et al., 2002; Denbow et al., 1986), which leads to elevated glucose levels in summer. Insulin promotes anabolic processes in the muscles and liver, thereby enhancing carbohydrate and lipid metabolism (Dimitriadis et al., 2011). Maternal glucose concentration was positively correlated with neonatal birth weight (Breschi et al., 1993). Thus, low insulin concentrations in summer that lead to high glucose concentrations in dams might result in heavy calves at birth, whereas high insulin levels in winter may contribute to heavier weaning weights by promoting anabolism in calves. Although further mechanistic studies are needed, our results suggest that seasonal metabolic variations may underlie the effects of birth season.
       
The parity of dams has also been reported to influence calf growth. Several studies have shown that higher dam parity positively affects calf body weight at birth and weaning (Kertz et al., 1997; El-Nazeir et al., 2015; Habtamu et al., 2012). The body weights of Hanwoo steer calves at birth and weaning were positively associated with the parity of dam (Lee et al., 2024). However, the effect of dam parity on calves’ birth weight remains controversial. Willis and Wilson (1974) reported that dam parity did not influence birth weight. In this study, the birth weight of calves was not associated with the parity of the dams, although calves born to cows with high parity had a much higher weaning weight. These results may be due to the nourishing experiences of the dams. For instance, a study on sheep (Lv et al., 2015) revealed that lamb birth weight was not associated with ewe parity, but weaning weight was associated with the experience and maternal behavior of the ewes. Multiparous ewes exhibited more positive maternal behaviors towards their lambs, such as increase grooming, better udder acceptance, low-pitched bleats and lower udder refusal. The positive association observed between lamb weight and their ewe parity may also apply to cattle. The parity of cows might influence the nourishing behavior towards their offspring; high parity cows have improved maternal behavior, leading to heavy weights at weaning. The results of the present study on dam age support our estimation. Overall, these findings suggest that the greater weaning weights observed in calves from higher parity dams may be attributed to the more practiced nourishing experiences of the dams rather than simply an increase in the age of the dam.
       
The initial birth weight strongly influences growth performance. Previous studies demonstrated that calves with higher birth weights had grater weaning weights and higher pre-weaning average daily gain (Rahnefeld et al., 1980). Calves with specific haplotype in locus of the bovine growth hormone gene had lower body weights at birth and 30 days of age (Ishida et al., 2020). Organ development also plays a role, as calves with heavier birth weights had heavier livers, supporting their greater metabolic capacity (Jacobsen et al., 2000). Together, these findings indicate that higher birth weights may enhance growth potential through both genetic and nutritional mechanisms, which aligns with the results of the present study. Future studies incorporating genomic information may further clarify the genetic basis of these growth traits.
       
Previous study that examined different cattle breed, such as Brahman and Bali confirmed positive correlations between various body measurements and body weight. These studies reported that the chest girth had the highest correlation with body weight (Kamprasert et al., 2019; Gunawan and Jakaria, 2010). The present results demonstrated the same tendency in Hanwoo cattle.
       
A limitation of our study was that it was conducted on a single farm; therefore, we could not include diverse environmental rearing conditions. However, this study was conducted on identical farms over a long period, which allowed us to control for other factors affecting calf weight, such as staff, feed and management. Future studies should expand to multiple farms and regions to validate our findings across diverse environments and production systems. Moreover, our findings have practical implications: understanding the interplay of breed, parity and seasonal effects can help optimize calf management, improve productivity and contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of Korean indigenous cattle breeds.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to simultaneously evaluate the effects of multiple factors on birth and weaning weights across all indigenous Korean cattle breeds, including Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu. The results offer valuable insights into breed specific growth characteristics and can serve as a foundation for developing improved early life management strategies for indigenous Korean cattle.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express our deepest gratitude to Wonyong Lee, Seongkyu Kim, Byoungkeun Min, Heungyoul Baek and Jaesoon Goo for their technical support. This research was funded by “Mass production of embryos and improvement of conception rate for elite cow (Project No. PJ017229)” at the National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
All animal procedures for experiments were approved by the Committee of Experimental Animal care and handling techniques were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the National Institute of Animal Science (approval number: NIAS-20230609), Republic of Korea.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Short Communication

    Factors Affecting Birth and Weaning Weights in Korean Indigenous Breed Calves

    H
    Huimang Song1,#
    S
    Seungmin Ha1,#
    S
    Seyoung Lee1
    N
    Namtae Kim1
    J
    Jae-Yeong Lee1,2
    C
    Chan-Lan Kim1,3
    D
    Daehyeok Jin1,4
    S
    Sang-Rae Cho1,5
    Y
    Yeoung-Gyu Ko1,*
    M
    Mi-Ryung Park1,*
    1Animal Genetic Resources Research Center, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Hamyang 50000, Republic of Korea.
    2Animal Biotechnology Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea.
    3Department of Animal Resource Development, Dairy Science Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Cheonan 31000, Republic of Korea.
    4Research Management Division, National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea.
    5Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Agricultural Life Sciences, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Understanding the factors that affect calf growth performance can enhance productivity in the cattle industry. This study investigated the effects of breed and sex, the difference between the date of birth and the estimated due date (DBE, gestation length), birth seasons, dam parity and age on body weight at birth and weaning in calves of Korean indigenous cattle breeds. Additionally, the correlation between body weight and body measurements at weaning was assessed.

    Methods: A total of 246 calves (Hanwoo, n=136; White Hanwoo, n=42; Chikso, n=41; and Heugu, n=27) born between January 2016 and June 2023 were used in this study. All calves were raised with their dams until weaning. Multiple linear regression (MLR) was employed to evaluate the effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, dam parity and dam age on birth and weaning weight. Correlation analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between body weight and body measurements at weaning.

    Result: Breed, sex, DBE and birth season significantly affected both birth and weaning weights (p<0.05). Hanwoo calves were the heaviest at birth, followed by Heugu, Chikso and White Hanwoo; at weaning, the order was Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu. Male calves were heavier than females at both stages (p<0.05). Calves born after the estimated due date were heavier at birth and weaning (p<0.05). Calves born in summer had higher birth weights, while those born in winter had higher weaning weights (p<0.05). Dam parity did not affect birth weight (p=0.318) but significantly influenced weaning weight (p=0.028), with higher parity associated with greater weaning weight. Birth weight was a significant predictor of weaning weight (p<0.001). Weaning weight showed strong positive correlations with chest girth (r=0.939), body length (r=0.827), withers height (r=0.816), rump height (r=0.814), pelvic width (r=0.788), rump width (r=0.782), chest width (r=0.752) and chest depth (r=0.714).

    INTRODUCTION

    Cattle productivity is a crucial aspect of the sustainable cattle industry. Previous studies have demonstrated how cattle productivity can be improved through various aspects such as genetics, nutrition and meat science (Snelling et al., 2019; Luebbe et al., 2019; Andreo et al., 2019). The body weight of heifers is closely associated with their birth weight (Hurst et al., 2021). Cattle with increased growth rates in early life may calve earlier, produce more milk and can be raised at lower costs (Chester-Jones et al., 2017; Davis et al., 2011; Shamay et al., 2005). Therefore, understanding the factors that influence birth and weaning weights is imperative for optimizing management practices in the cattle industry.
           
    Both genetic and nongenetic factors influence birth and weaning weights (Szabó et al., 2006; Riley et al., 2007; Rezende et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2025). Breeding is considered a primary factor affecting birth and weaning weights (Szabó et al., 2006; Rezende et al., 2020). Furthermore, cross-mating high-performance breeds is often used to improve productivity (Favero et al., 2019). Other factors, including the sex of calves and the repro-ductive characteristics of dams, such as age, parity and gestation length, also influence calf weight (Szabó et al., 2006; Riley et al., 2007; Rezende et al., 2020; Cho et al., 2021; Duncan et al., 2023). Moreover, environmental conditions, including birth season and rearing conditions, influence weight (Almeida et al., 2023). Although previous studies have reported significant effects of these factors on birth and weaning weights in calves, the results have not been consistent across studies, varying by factors such as region and breed. Therefore, these inconsistencies indicate the need for further investigations across diverse breeds and environmental conditions. In Korea, Hanwoo is the dominant beef cattle breed, representing the majority of domestic beef supply. According to recent reports, the national beef self-sufficiency rate was approximately 40-41% in 2023-2024 and Hanwoo beef constitutes a substantial portion of this production. This underscoring its critical role in the Korean cattle industry (Hanwoo Board, 2024; Lee et al., 2025). Nevertheless, other indigenous breeds such as White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu also represent valuable genetic resources that require further attention for conservation and utilization.
           
    To the best of our knowledge, no comprehensive study has simultaneously addressed various factors affecting birth and weaning weights in Korean indigenous cattle (Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu). We aimed to identify the effects of various factors on the birth and weaning weights of indigenous Korean cattle breeds by simultaneously analyzing multiple factors.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    Animals
     
    A total of 246 indigenous Korean breed calves (Hanwoo, n=136; White Hanwoo, n=42; Chikso, n=41; Heugu, 27) used in this study were born between January 2016 and June 2023 and raised with their dams until weaning. The calves were clinically healthy from birth until weaning. Body measurements were performed on 167 calves (Hanwoo, n=89; White Hanwoo, n=28; Chikso, n=26; Heugu, n=24) between February 2018 and June 2023, when the calves were weaned. The animals suckled the teats of their dams for colostrum and milk, began to be fed concentrates and hay at 30 days of age and were weaned at 90 days of age. All calves were born and raised at the Animal Genetic Resources Research Center, National Institute of Animal Science (Hamyang, Republic of Korea). They were kept with their dams in individual pens until weaning and both calves and dams were maintained under a uniform management and feeding system. Clean water and mineral blocks were available ad libitum. The housing facilities were based on an open housing system designed to maintain proper ventilation, natural lighting and hygiene. The local climate is classified as temperate and seasonal changes were managed through appropriate ventilation and water supply adjustments. There was no variation between farms or management practices, ensuring data homogeneity.
     
    Data collection
     
    We collected data related to the calves, including breed (Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu) sex, the difference between the date of birth and estimated due date (DBE), birth seasons, age and parity of their dam, birth weight and body measurements at 90 days of age. The body measurements included body weight, withers height, rump height, body length, chest depth, chest width, rump length, rump width, pelvic width, hipbone width and chest girth. The calving seasons were grouped as spring (March to May), summer (June to August), autumn (September to November), or winter (December to February).
     
    Statistical analyses
     
    Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS software (SPSS 27.0, IBM-SPSS INC, Chicago, IL, USA). We performed multiple linear regression (MLR) analyses to assess the effects of breed, sex, DBE, dam age, dam parity and birth season on birth weight. In addition, we evaluated the effects of birth weight including those on birth weight at weaning. A dummy conversion was applied to breed, sex and birth season.
    The fitted regression equation is as follows:


    Where the regression coefficients (constants) b1, b2,…, bn represent the independent contributions of each independent variable x1, x2,… xn for evaluating the effects of these factors on body weight. Statistical significance was set at p<0.05. Multicollinearity among independent variables was examined using tolerance and variance inflation factors to conduct the MLR analysis. Tolerance above 0.1 and a variance inflation factor (VIF) of less than 10 indicate no multicollinearity. The Durbin–Watson (D–W) statistic ranged from 1 to 3, confirming that there was no autocorrelation between errors.
           
    Pearson’s correlation test was used to determine the correlations between body measurements at weaning. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was represented as r ≥ 0.7, strong correlation; 0.5 ≤ r < 0.7, moderate correlation; 0.3 ≤ r < 0.5, weak correlation; and r < 0.3, no correlation.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth seasons, age and parity of dam on birth weight
     
    The results from the MLR model were significant in identifying the effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, age and parity of the dam on birth weight (F=14.166, p<0.001) (Table 1). The explanatory power of the MLR model was 37.6% (R2=0.376, adj R2=0.350). The tolerance, VIF and D–W statistic results indicated no multicollinearity and no autocorrelation between the errors. Significance testing of the regression coefficients revealed that breed, sex, DBE and birth in summer influenced birth weight (p<0.05). White Hanwoo breed (β=-0.404) had the largest impact, followed by Chikso breed (β=-0.347), DBE (β=0.25), sex (β=0.229), Heugu (β=-0.118) and birth in summer (β=0.117). In terms of breed, White Hanwoo (β=-0.404), Chikso (β=-0.347) and Heugu (β=-0.118) calves were born with less weight than Hanwoo calves. Additionally, calves were born later than the estimated due date in summer and a male calf had considerable weight at birth.

    Table 1: Effects of breed, sex, birth date, birth season, dam parity and age on birth weight of indigenous Korean breed calves.



    Effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, age and parity of dam and birth weight on weaning weight
     
    The MLR model was used to identify the effects of breed, sex, DBE, birth season, age and parity of dam and birth weight was statistically significant (F=14.209, p<0.001) (Table 2). The MLR model explanatory power of 50.2% (R2=0.502,adj R2=0.467). Multicollinearity and autocorrelation between errors were not identified. Breed, sex, DBE, winter birth, dam parity and birth weight significantly influenced weaning weight (p<0.05). Birth weight (β=0.413) had the largest impact, followed by dam parity (β=0.312), Heugu (β=-0.283), Chikso (β=-0.274), birth in winter (β=0.27), White Hanwoo (β=-0.248), DBE (β=0.151) and sex (β=0.147). Calves with heavy weights at birth weighed much more at weaning. Furthermore, high-parity cows delivered and raised heavier calves. Hanwoo weighed more at weaning than White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu. Calves that were born in winter, later than the estimated due date and male calves weighed more at weaning.

    Table 2: Effects of breed, sex, birth date, birth season, dam parity and age and birth weight on weaning weight of indigenous Korean breed calves.


     
    Correlation between body measurements at weaning
     
    We investigated the correlations between body weight, withers height, rump height, body length, chest depth, chest width, rump length, rump width, pelvic width, hipbone width and chest girth at weaning (Table 3). Body weight at weaning strongly correlated with chest girth (r=0.939), body length (r=0.827), withers height (r=0.816), rump height (r=0.814), pelvic width (r=0.788), rump width (r=0.782), chest width (r=0.752) and chest depth (r=0.714). The correlations between body weight at weaning and rump length (r=0.610) and hipbone width (r=0.596) were moderate (p<0.001). Strong correlations were identified between withers and rump heights (r=0.998) and between rump and pelvic width (r=0.879).

    Table 3: Correlation between weaning weights and body measurement.


           
    In the present study, breed, sex, DBE and season (summer) were associated with birth weight in indigenous Korean cattle. Furthermore, breed, sex, DBE, season (winter), dam parity and birth weight were associated with their weaning weight, which was strongly correlated with chest girth, body length, withers height, rump height, pelvic width, rump width, chest width and depth.
           
    The findings of the current study are consistent with those of previous studies that identified the effects of breed, sex and DBE on birth and weaning weights in indigenous Korean cattle breeds. Choi et al., (2015) reported that breed affects birth and weaning weight; this study compared White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu, except for most indigenous Korean cattle breeds, Hanwoo. The current study is the first to report that Hanwoo cattle are heavier than other Korean indigenous cattle breeds at birth and weaning. Moreover, as in a previous study, male calves were heavier than female calves at birth and at weaning (Kayastha et al., 2008; Park et al., 2022). Gestational length is associated with weight at birth and weaning (Hwang et al., 2008, Coleman et al., 2021).
           
    Although the effects of birth season on birth and weaning weights are controversial owing to various factors, such as rearing and pasture conditions, several studies have verified the effects of birth season in cattle (Szabó et al., 2006; Wakchaure and Meena, 2010; Cho et al., 2021; Park et al., 2022). In this study, we observed that calves born in summer were heavier at birth and those born in winter were heavier at weaning. One of the possible explanations for seasonal effects may be the fluctuation in cattle hormones, such as insulin and glucagon. Insulin concentrations in dairy cattle are higher in winter than in summer (Herbein et al., 1985; De Rensis et al., 2002; Denbow et al., 1986), which leads to elevated glucose levels in summer. Insulin promotes anabolic processes in the muscles and liver, thereby enhancing carbohydrate and lipid metabolism (Dimitriadis et al., 2011). Maternal glucose concentration was positively correlated with neonatal birth weight (Breschi et al., 1993). Thus, low insulin concentrations in summer that lead to high glucose concentrations in dams might result in heavy calves at birth, whereas high insulin levels in winter may contribute to heavier weaning weights by promoting anabolism in calves. Although further mechanistic studies are needed, our results suggest that seasonal metabolic variations may underlie the effects of birth season.
           
    The parity of dams has also been reported to influence calf growth. Several studies have shown that higher dam parity positively affects calf body weight at birth and weaning (Kertz et al., 1997; El-Nazeir et al., 2015; Habtamu et al., 2012). The body weights of Hanwoo steer calves at birth and weaning were positively associated with the parity of dam (Lee et al., 2024). However, the effect of dam parity on calves’ birth weight remains controversial. Willis and Wilson (1974) reported that dam parity did not influence birth weight. In this study, the birth weight of calves was not associated with the parity of the dams, although calves born to cows with high parity had a much higher weaning weight. These results may be due to the nourishing experiences of the dams. For instance, a study on sheep (Lv et al., 2015) revealed that lamb birth weight was not associated with ewe parity, but weaning weight was associated with the experience and maternal behavior of the ewes. Multiparous ewes exhibited more positive maternal behaviors towards their lambs, such as increase grooming, better udder acceptance, low-pitched bleats and lower udder refusal. The positive association observed between lamb weight and their ewe parity may also apply to cattle. The parity of cows might influence the nourishing behavior towards their offspring; high parity cows have improved maternal behavior, leading to heavy weights at weaning. The results of the present study on dam age support our estimation. Overall, these findings suggest that the greater weaning weights observed in calves from higher parity dams may be attributed to the more practiced nourishing experiences of the dams rather than simply an increase in the age of the dam.
           
    The initial birth weight strongly influences growth performance. Previous studies demonstrated that calves with higher birth weights had grater weaning weights and higher pre-weaning average daily gain (Rahnefeld et al., 1980). Calves with specific haplotype in locus of the bovine growth hormone gene had lower body weights at birth and 30 days of age (Ishida et al., 2020). Organ development also plays a role, as calves with heavier birth weights had heavier livers, supporting their greater metabolic capacity (Jacobsen et al., 2000). Together, these findings indicate that higher birth weights may enhance growth potential through both genetic and nutritional mechanisms, which aligns with the results of the present study. Future studies incorporating genomic information may further clarify the genetic basis of these growth traits.
           
    Previous study that examined different cattle breed, such as Brahman and Bali confirmed positive correlations between various body measurements and body weight. These studies reported that the chest girth had the highest correlation with body weight (Kamprasert et al., 2019; Gunawan and Jakaria, 2010). The present results demonstrated the same tendency in Hanwoo cattle.
           
    A limitation of our study was that it was conducted on a single farm; therefore, we could not include diverse environmental rearing conditions. However, this study was conducted on identical farms over a long period, which allowed us to control for other factors affecting calf weight, such as staff, feed and management. Future studies should expand to multiple farms and regions to validate our findings across diverse environments and production systems. Moreover, our findings have practical implications: understanding the interplay of breed, parity and seasonal effects can help optimize calf management, improve productivity and contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of Korean indigenous cattle breeds.

    CONCLUSION

    To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to simultaneously evaluate the effects of multiple factors on birth and weaning weights across all indigenous Korean cattle breeds, including Hanwoo, White Hanwoo, Chikso and Heugu. The results offer valuable insights into breed specific growth characteristics and can serve as a foundation for developing improved early life management strategies for indigenous Korean cattle.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    The authors would like to express our deepest gratitude to Wonyong Lee, Seongkyu Kim, Byoungkeun Min, Heungyoul Baek and Jaesoon Goo for their technical support. This research was funded by “Mass production of embryos and improvement of conception rate for elite cow (Project No. PJ017229)” at the National Institute of Animal Science, Rural Development Administration, Republic of Korea.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    All animal procedures for experiments were approved by the Committee of Experimental Animal care and handling techniques were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the National Institute of Animal Science (approval number: NIAS-20230609), Republic of Korea.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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