Morphology, origin, distribution and ginger oil
Ginger is believed to be originated in tropical Southeast Asia, possibly in the Indian subcontinent. It has been cultivated for thousands of years and is now grown in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. The fifth top ginger producing countries include India, China, Nepal, Indonesia and Nigeria, respectively (
Mukjerjee and Karati 2022). Ginger belongs to the family Zingiberaceae, which also includes turmeric (Curcuma longa), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) andgalangal. The ginger (Z
. officinale) is a flowering perennial plant reached 1-3 feet height. The rhizome, or ginger root, is the most important part of the plant andit is the part that is used as a spice or medicine. The rhizome is knobby and has a brown skin. It has a pungent, spicy flavor and a warm aroma. Components of ginger oil, originated from roots, were varied according to the area, protocol of extraction and roots condition
(Ibtisham et al., 2019). It is well-known that ginger oils are considered safe and used of great importance for improvement of respiratory and gastrointestinal functions. Ginger and its derivative compounds could be used as a promising alternative to antibiotics in livestock and poultry feed (
Abd El-Hack et al., 2020).
Effects of ginger on body functions
Ginger has many health benefits due to the several bioactive compounds
(Yang et al., 2024) (Fig 1 and Table 1). The variety of bioactive compounds has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antidiarrhoeic, antiemetic and lipolytic activities resulting in improvement of blood metabolites, productive and reproductive performances
(Akhlaghi et al., 2014; Sorrenti et al., 2023). Zingerone is produced by thermal degradation of gingerols or shogaols or during drying of ginger directly. It has been stated that ginger oil chemical composition is influenced by rhizome origin, freshness or dehydration status and procedures of extraction (
Abd El-Hack et al., 2020).
Zingerone is absent in fresh ginger but is formed through heating or cooking to transform gingerol to zingerone, which present 9.25% of ginger
(Zhang et al., 2012). Zingerone has potent pharmacological activities including antidiabetic, antilipolytic, antidiarrhoeic, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic activities. In addition, zingerone displays the properties of immune stimulation and enhancing growth. Besides, zingerone inhibits the reactive nitrogen species (RNS), which is important to cause Alzheimer’s disease.
Effect of ginger on productive performance and serum metabolites under heat-stress condition
Heat stress is known to severely effect on feed utilization and body weight gain
(Ibtisham et al., 2019). Therefore, improving the negative effects of heat stress in the animal and poultry industry is extremely important
(Al-Mufarji et al., 2022a,b). Heat stress can lead to oxidative stress, which causes lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage to cellular membranes. Feed intake and digestibility and production were improved due to ginger supplemented diet in addition to significantly higher glucose versus lower trigly cerides and cholesterol values. Furthermore, nitric oxide, glutathione peroxidase and total protein values were significantly improved due to ginger supplemented diet
(Ibtisham et al., 2019). It has been showed that ginger can stimulate the secretion of gastrointestinal fluid and promote feed digestion (
Amerah and Ravindran, 2015). Many compounds found in ginger can bind to serotonin receptors, which in turn might influence gastrointestinal functions and can be used as growth promoter
(Ashayerizadeh et al., 2009). Therefore, the effect of ginger on serum metabolites might be due to a number of different mechanisms including direct effects on enzymes, activation of signaling pathways and altering gut microbiota. Ginger has shown various pharmacological effects including immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects
(Zhao et al., 2011) due to several compounds as gingerol and shogaols that possess antioxidant activity.
Effects of ginger on reproductive performances
There are great evidences that ginger enhance male and female reproductive performances
(Abdelfattah et al., 2023). Because of ginger properties concerning presence of active phenolic compounds and androgenic activity, it improves semen quality through reducing oxidative stress and altering the levels of LH, FSH andandrogen hormones
(Gholami-Ahangaran et al., 2021). The antioxidant and androgenic properties of ginger give the sperm normal morphological structures, viability and increase sperm fertility characters. Ginger contains gingerol, gingerdiol and gingerdione, which may promote the functioning of the antioxidant defense system (
Baliga et al., 2011). Additionally, the adjuvant impacts of antioxidants on ovarian follicle development, oocyte maturation and embryo development of mammalian species has been indicated
(Mohammed et al., 2024a).
Antioxidants improve female reproductive performances through the significant increase in reproductive hormone values, numbers and sizes of ovarian follicles in addition to increase of ovulation rate and corpora lutea development (
Mohammed and Al-Suwaiegh 2016,
2023;
Senosy et al., 2017, 2018,
2019;
Mohammed 2018;
Ali et al., 2021; Al-Mufarji et al., 2022a,b; Chen et al., 2023; Mohammed et al., 2024a,b,c). In addition, antioxidant supplementation to in vitro maturation media of oocytes promotes maturation and further embryonic development
(Yao et al., 2023). The antioxidants improved the quality of embryos and stimulated their mitochondrial function (
Gomes da Silva et al., 2023). Therefore, it is expected, due to the high antioxidant content of ginger, promotion of female reproductive performances. The short term with low dose of ginger (100 mg/5-day) was increased the antral follicle count and ovarian stromal vascular endothelial growth factor (
Yılmaz et al., 2018). The citral compound of ginger was found to exhibits estrogen actions (
Kiyama, 2020). Hence, we could expect in assisted reproductive techniques promotion of ovarian follicle development andembryo development either
in vivo or
in vitro upon ginger supplementation. Moreover, the surgical assisted techniques used in reproduction as vasectomy, embryo transfer, ovarian transplantation and et cetera might promote recovery and enhance reproductive performance.
Effect of ginger on pharmacological significance
Ginger and its constituents are known to provide beneficial properties to the body functions. They have been recognized to inhibit the oxidation of various free radicals and the production of nitric oxide. Ginger has been shown to have a number of positive effects on the cardiac system including reduction of blood pressure, lowering cholesterol levels, preventing blood clots, improving blood circulation andprotecting against heart disease by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress (
Patil and Patil, 2021;
Daniels et al., 2022; Mukjerjee and Karati, 2022). Besides, ginger has been shown to have a number of potential neuroprotective effects as reduction of oxidative stress, reducing inflammation, improving cognitive function andprotecting against neurodegenerative diseases. These effects might be due to a number of different mechanisms including direct effects on brain cells, activation of signaling pathways andmodulation of gut microbiota
(Shanmugam et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2018; Mukjerjee and Karati, 2022). Furthermore, a number of gastroprotective effects of ginger has been indicated as reduction of gastric acid secretion, protecting the gastric mucosa, promoting gastric healing andrelieving nausea and vomiting
(Stewart et al., 1991; Ernst and Pittler, 2000). Besides, ginger has been shown to have a number of hepatoprotective effects including protecting the liver from damage caused by toxins, reducing liver inflammation, promoting liver regeneration and improving liver function
(Stagos et al., 2012; Fahmi et al., 2019). In addition, a number of potential benefits for people with osteoarthritis due to ginger supplementation includes reducing pain, reducing inflammation and slowing disease progression (
Altman and Marcussen 2001). These beneficial effects of ginger might be due to a number of anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antiemetic and prokinetic effects.
Effect of ginger on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities
Ginger and its constituents have the ability to degrade free radicals generated from food products due to phenolic compounds including gingerols, shogaols andparadols. These compounds effectively scavenge free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can damage cells and DNA. By neutralizing free radicals, ginger helps protect the body from oxidative stress, a cellular imbalance that contributes to various chronic diseases
(Stoilova et al., 2007; Rajan et al., 2013; Banji et al., 2014).
The antioxidant properties of ginger have been linked to its potential health benefits. Ginger’s ability to protect against oxidative stress may contribute to its anti-inflammatory
(Lantz et al., 2007), anticancer
(Li et al., 2013; El-Ashmawy et al., 2018) andneuroprotective
(Shanmugam et al., 2011) effects. Additionally, ginger has been shown to improve blood sugar
(Ahmad et al., 2015) control and protect against cardiovascular diseases (
Mukjerjee and Karati 2022), both of which are associated with oxidative stress
(Banji et al., 2014).
Effect of ginger on antidiarrhoeic, antiemetic and lipolytic activities
Ginger and its constituents have been shown to have antidiarrheal effects in both animal and human studies. It is thought to work by several mechanisms including inhibiting the production of prostaglandins, reducing inflammation, stimulating the production of mucus and blocking the action of serotonin
(Chen et al., 2007; Iwami et al., 2011). Besides, nausea and emesis are the side effects after treatment regime
(Pillai et al., 2011). Zingerone can be used to treat cytotoxic chemotherapy induced emesis and postoperative nausea and vomiting
(Sharma et al., 1997). Furthermore, ginger and its bioactive compounds, gingerols and shogaols, have been indicated to provide a positive effect on lipolysis both
in vitro and
in vivo. The worldwide obesity rate since 1980 has nearly doubled. The World Obesity Federation predicts one in seven men and one in five women will have obesity by 2030. According to the WHO organization, four million people die each year as a result of obesity. The effect of ginger on lipolysis is likely due to several mechanisms as increasing the activity of hormone-sensitive lipase, inhibiting the expression of adipocyte protein 2, upregulating the expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor β
(Han et al., 2008; Thunchomnang et al., 2012). Ginger may have potential as a weight loss purpose. However, more studies are still needed to confirm the long-term safety and efficacy of ginger for this purpose.
