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Full Research Article

Seasonal Adaptability of Black Bengal Goats: A Four-season Study of Serum Biochemical, Mineral, Hormonal and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers

K
Komal 1
0009-0002-6425-3771
A
Ayush Ranajn2
A
Anil Gattani3
K
Kaushalendra Kumar4
0000-0003-0549-6896
A
Anjay5
0000-0002-1523-215X
A
Ajeet Kumar6,*
0000-0002-8783-9559
1Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Kishanganj-855 107, Bihar, India.
2Touring Veterinary Officer, Government of Bihar, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
3Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
4Department of Animal Nutrition, Bihar Veterinary College, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
5Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Bihar Veterinary College, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
6Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, Bihar Veterinary College, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.

ABSTRACT

Background: Climate change increasingly threatens global ecosystems, with livestock in developing countries like India being particularly vulnerable. Variations in temperature and humidity throughout the seasons significantly affect animal health, adaptability and productivity. Black Bengal goats, an important genetic resource in Bihar, are noted for their resilience and economic value. Understanding their physiological and biochemical responses to seasonal stress is crucial for creating effective management strategies.

Methods: This study investigated the seasonal adaptability of Black Bengal goats by evaluating various physiological and biochemical parameters across four distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. Twenty healthy female goats were chosen and blood samples were collected in each season. The temperature-humidity index (THI) was calculated to assess heat stress conditions. Key biomarkers analyzed included biochemical (blood urea nitrogen, albumin, globulin, glucose), hormonal (cortisol, TSH, T3, T4), mineral and oxidative stress markers (glutathione, malondialdehyde [MDA], catalase, total antioxidant capacity [TAC] and superoxide dismutase [SOD]).

Result: The THI values showed severe heat stress during the summer and monsoon seasons (THI > 85), moderate stress in the post-monsoon period (THI 78) and comfortable conditions in winter (THI 63). Significant seasonal variations were observed in biochemical parameters, with the most notable changes occurring in summer. Cortisol levels were higher during summer and monsoon, indicating heat-induced stress, while thyroid hormones (TSH, T3 and T4) were elevated in winter and post-monsoon, suggesting thermoregulatory adaptations. Oxidative stress markers also varied significantly, with increased oxidative damage and antioxidant enzyme activity during hotter seasons. These findings emphasize the impact of seasonal stress on goat physiology and highlight the need for season-specific strategies to improve resilience and productivity.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change presents a major risk to global ecosystems, with forecasts indicating that unusual weather patterns may cause the extinction of approximately 8% of animal species worldwide (Joy et al., 2020). Over the last hundred years, India has experienced temperature increases in all seasons-summer, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter-with notable warming during the post-monsoon and winter periods (Tesfaye et al., 2017). The rise in minimum temperatures in India has exceeded the maximum temperatures, leading to a reduced diurnal temperature range across the country (Roy and Balling, 2005). In developing nations such as India, goats, referred to as the “poor man’s cow,” are vital to rural populations’ livelihoods, providing income and nutrition (Gupta and Mondal, 2019). Goats exhibit exceptional resilience to climate fluctuations compared to larger ruminants because of their physiological, behavioral and morphological adaptations (Nair et al., 2021). India hosts various region-specific livestock breeds, each suited to distinct macroclimatic conditions (Ramachandran and Sejian, 2022). The Black Bengal goat, native to Bangladesh and eastern India, is valued for its small size, high reproductive efficiency and superior meat and skin qualities (Chowdhury et al., 2010). Despite their adaptive characteristics, goat productivity can be affected by extreme weather conditions (Lima et al., 2022). Evaluating adaptability involves immediate physiological responses, such as changes in rectal temperature, respiratory rate, pulse rate and sweating, as well as long-term biochemical adaptations, including changes in blood chemistry and heat resistance-related gene expression (Leite et al., 2021). Blood biochemistry indicates an animal’s health, metabolic patterns and adaptive responses to environmental conditions (Leite et al., 2021). Endocrine responses and antioxidant status are crucial metrics for assessing heat stress adaptability in livestock (Sejian et al., 2021). The temperature-humidity index (THI) is used to evaluate heat stress in livestock. Various THI models have been used to assess heat stress in goats. Srivastava et al., (2021) compared THI models to evaluate environmental stress in goats under semi-arid conditions and identified suitable models for these regions. Understanding the relationship between physio-biochemical parameters and THI is essential for predicting the environmental impacts across seasons in goats. Although the Black Bengal goat is adapted to arid and semi-arid regions (Leite et al., 2021), research on its year-round adaptability is limited. Most studies have focused on summer, monsoon and winter, with a gap in comparative evaluations across all seasons. This study aimed to compare the adaptability of Black Bengal goats across all four seasons by evaluating biochemical, mineral and hormonal parameters and oxidative stress indicators.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was conducted at the Instructional Livestock Farm of Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna, India (latitude 25o35'N, longitude 85o05'E, elevation 53 meters). The climate experiences temperatures from 6oC to 42oC, with relative humidity between 30% and 75%. Twenty healthy female Black Bengal goats, weighing 30-35 kg and aged 1.5-2 years, were selected. Standard vaccination and deworming procedures were followed. The goats were managed under a semi-intensive system, grazing daily from 7:00 to 11:30 a.m. Consistent management practices and hygiene were maintained. The Institutional Animal Ethics Committee approved all protocols. The study covered four seasons: summer (May-June), monsoon (July-August), post-monsoon (October-November) and winter (December- January). Physiological measurements and blood samples were collected between 12:00 and 1:00 PM each season. Meteorological data, including rainfall, dry and wet bulb temperatures and maximum and minimum temperatures, were obtained from Patna Airport meteorological station, one kilometer from the site. Relative humidity was calculated using a psychrometric chart and bulb temperatures. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) was determined using the formula by Srivastava et al., (2021):.


 
Where
Tdb  = Represents dry bulb temperature (oC).
RH = Denotes relative humidity (%).
               
A total of 160 blood samples were collected from 20 goats at 15-day intervals. Serum was separated by centrifugation at 800 × g for 15 min and stored at -20oC. Serum metabolites, including total protein, albumin, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine and enzymes like alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), were measured using Coral Clinical Systems diagnostic kits. Electrolytes and minerals were assessed with these kits following manufacturer’s guidelines. Hormone levels, including T3, T4, TSH and cortisol, were evaluated using Bioassay Technology Laboratory ELISA kits. Lipid peroxidation was determined by quantifying malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration (Stock and Dormandy, 1971). Serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured using the MTT reduction method (Madesh and Balasubramanian, 1998). Catalase (CAT) activity was assessed by measuring hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate (Aebi, 1983). Reduced glutathione (GSH) concentration and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were determined (Prins and Loos, 1969; Benzie and Strain, 1996). Repeated measures ANOVA analyzed seasonal variations, with significant differences identified at 95% confidence using Duncan’s multiple range test in SPSS Statistical software 29.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 outlines the average monthly and seasonal meteorological variables recorded during the study. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) was high (>85) in the summer and monsoon seasons, moderate (>77) in the post-monsoon season and within the comfort range (<65) during winter. These THI values indicate that goats experienced severe heat stress in the summer and monsoon seasons, moderate heat stress in the post-monsoon season and were in a thermocomfort zone during winter (Hamzaoui et al., 2013). Consequently, conserving and promoting locally adapted breeds is an effective approach to counteract the effects of climate change, as these native breeds often show enhanced resilience to specific climatic challenges (Inbaraj et al., 2018). Although goats are known for their hardiness (Nair et al., 2021), prolonged exposure to high temperatures and humidity still induces physiological stress (El-Tarabany et al., 2017).

Table 1: Metrological condition during experiment.


       
The THI is a useful metric to evaluate environmental stress. Specific THI values above 77 denote moderate stress, while those above 85 indicate severe stress (Silanikove, 2000). Our study observed THI values exceeding 85 during the summer and monsoon, aligning with severe heat stress conditions and THI values around 78 and 63 in the post-monsoon and winter, respectively, indicating moderate and thermocomfort conditions. These findings support earlier reports that high THI values are associated with adverse physiological and biochemical changes (El-Tarabany et al., 2017).
       
Table 2 presents the average concentrations of serum biochemical, mineral, hormonal and antioxidant parameters. Statistical analysis revealed no significant seasonal differences in total protein concentration, in agreement with Perveen et al., (2019), who also reported stable protein levels across seasons. However, other studies (Bobade et al., 2020) noted increased protein levels during heat stress, possibly due to the involvement of plasma proteins in gluconeogenesis, which may lead to decreased albumin levels (Yue et al., 2020; Mehaba et al., 2021). Our findings of lower albumin and higher globulin levels in summer support this mechanism and suggest hemoconcentration due to plasma volume reduction under heat stress (Nohara et al., 2022). Increased activity in hot conditions might also lower albumin levels (Scharf et al., 2010). Blood glucose levels were significantly higher in winter and lowest in summer (P<0.05), likely due to increased glucose demand and reduced intake during heat stress (Scharf et al., 2010; Banerjee et al., 2015). BUN levels varied significantly across seasons (P<0.05), with higher levels during monsoon and lower in winter, which may reflect increased protein breakdown and reduced renal blood flow due to dehydration (Indu et al., 2014; Chaudhary et al., 2015). Impaired ammonia utilization by rumen microflora may also contribute (Yadav et al., 2022). Creatinine levels were significantly higher during the post-monsoon and winter seasons, with the lowest levels in monsoon. ALT activity showed a seasonal decline, being significantly higher in summer and lower in winter, while AST activity remained unchanged. Heat stress results in a significant increase in serum ALT and AST activities (Soni et al., 2022).

Table 2: Seasonal variation in serum biochemical, mineral, hormonal and antioxidant parameters.


       
Sodium and potassium concentrations were significantly higher (P<0.05) in summer, monsoon and post-monsoon compared to winter, possibly due to dehydration and related physiological adjustments (Rathwa et al., 2017). Chloride levels increased significantly in monsoon, post-monsoon and winter compared to summer. Zinc concentration was significantly higher in winter (P<0.05), whereas copper did not show significant seasonal variation. These findings align with earlier reports on decreased levels of zinc and copper under stress (Noaman, 2014; Ganger et al., 2016; Manimaran et al., 2024). The reduction in magnesium levels may result from the shift of ions between cellular compartments under chronic stress (Pickering et al., 2020). Calcium levels were significantly higher in winter and phosphorus showed significant seasonal variation, with the highest levels during monsoon. These trends may reflect improved dietary intake and absorption during cooler seasons (Lima et al., 2021; Rathwa et al., 2017; Ganger et al., 2016).
       
Hormonal and oxidative stress markers. T3, T4 and TSH levels were significantly higher during post-monsoon and winter and lower during summer, which supports the idea that animals suppress metabolic hormones under thermal stress to reduce internal heat production (Todini, 2007; Pragna et al., 2018). Cortisol levels were significantly elevated in summer and monsoon, indicating heat-induced stress responses and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (Sejian et al., 2008). Elevated cortisol supports energy mobilization during stress and aligns with previous findings (Chergui et al., 2017; Shaji et al., 2017).
       
Oxidative stress responses also exhibited seasonal trends. MDA levels, a marker of lipid peroxidation, peaked during summer and monsoon, indicating increased reactive oxygen species (Abdelnour et al., 2019). Correspondingly, SOD and CAT activities were significantly higher in these seasons, suggesting a compensatory antioxidant response (Lakhani et al., 2020; Karthik et al., 2021). GSH concentrations were also elevated, possibly due to increased activity of glutathione-S-transferase (Bernabucci et al., 2002; Dhanasree et al., 2020). The total antioxidant capacity (TAC), measured using the FRAP assay, was significantly higher in winter, indicating enhanced endogenous antioxidant activity during cooler periods (Benzie and Devaki, 2018). These results are consistent with other studies demonstrating seasonal regulation of antioxidant defense systems (Gujar et al., 2024; Giri et al., 2019; Khushboo et al., 2020).

CONCLUSION

Our research highlights the considerable impact of seasonal changes on the physiological and biochemical parameters of goats. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) values indicated severe heat stress during the summer and monsoon seasons, moderate stress during the post-monsoon period and comfort during winter. Although goats are naturally adaptable, their metabolic, hormonal and oxidative stress responses are negatively influenced by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. Seasonal variations in serum proteins, enzymes and minerals suggest adaptive responses to environmental stress, with significant changes in albumin, globulin and glucose levels observed during the summer. This study underscores the importance of monitoring thyroid hormones and cortisol as stress indicators, particularly during hot seasons. Oxidative stress markers, such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), further confirm the harmful effects of high temperatures on goats. These findings highlight the need for targeted management strategies to alleviate the negative effects of seasonal stress on goats, thereby ensuring their well-being and productivity throughout the year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Authors acknowledge the Hon’ble, Vice chancellor, Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna for financial support.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
The experiment was conducted following the necessary approval from the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee  (IAEC) of the Bihar Veterinary College, approval was granted by IAEC vide IAEC/BVC/20/15 dated 24.07.2020.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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    Full Research Article

    Seasonal Adaptability of Black Bengal Goats: A Four-season Study of Serum Biochemical, Mineral, Hormonal and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers

    K
    Komal 1
    0009-0002-6425-3771
    A
    Ayush Ranajn2
    A
    Anil Gattani3
    K
    Kaushalendra Kumar4
    0000-0003-0549-6896
    A
    Anjay5
    0000-0002-1523-215X
    A
    Ajeet Kumar6,*
    0000-0002-8783-9559
    1Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Kishanganj-855 107, Bihar, India.
    2Touring Veterinary Officer, Government of Bihar, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
    3Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Nanaji Deshmukh Veterinary Science University, Jabalpur-482 001, Madhya Pradesh, India.
    4Department of Animal Nutrition, Bihar Veterinary College, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
    5Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Bihar Veterinary College, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.
    6Department of Veterinary Biochemistry, Bihar Veterinary College, Patna-800 014, Bihar, India.

    ABSTRACT

    Background: Climate change increasingly threatens global ecosystems, with livestock in developing countries like India being particularly vulnerable. Variations in temperature and humidity throughout the seasons significantly affect animal health, adaptability and productivity. Black Bengal goats, an important genetic resource in Bihar, are noted for their resilience and economic value. Understanding their physiological and biochemical responses to seasonal stress is crucial for creating effective management strategies.

    Methods: This study investigated the seasonal adaptability of Black Bengal goats by evaluating various physiological and biochemical parameters across four distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter. Twenty healthy female goats were chosen and blood samples were collected in each season. The temperature-humidity index (THI) was calculated to assess heat stress conditions. Key biomarkers analyzed included biochemical (blood urea nitrogen, albumin, globulin, glucose), hormonal (cortisol, TSH, T3, T4), mineral and oxidative stress markers (glutathione, malondialdehyde [MDA], catalase, total antioxidant capacity [TAC] and superoxide dismutase [SOD]).

    Result: The THI values showed severe heat stress during the summer and monsoon seasons (THI > 85), moderate stress in the post-monsoon period (THI 78) and comfortable conditions in winter (THI 63). Significant seasonal variations were observed in biochemical parameters, with the most notable changes occurring in summer. Cortisol levels were higher during summer and monsoon, indicating heat-induced stress, while thyroid hormones (TSH, T3 and T4) were elevated in winter and post-monsoon, suggesting thermoregulatory adaptations. Oxidative stress markers also varied significantly, with increased oxidative damage and antioxidant enzyme activity during hotter seasons. These findings emphasize the impact of seasonal stress on goat physiology and highlight the need for season-specific strategies to improve resilience and productivity.

    INTRODUCTION

    Climate change presents a major risk to global ecosystems, with forecasts indicating that unusual weather patterns may cause the extinction of approximately 8% of animal species worldwide (Joy et al., 2020). Over the last hundred years, India has experienced temperature increases in all seasons-summer, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter-with notable warming during the post-monsoon and winter periods (Tesfaye et al., 2017). The rise in minimum temperatures in India has exceeded the maximum temperatures, leading to a reduced diurnal temperature range across the country (Roy and Balling, 2005). In developing nations such as India, goats, referred to as the “poor man’s cow,” are vital to rural populations’ livelihoods, providing income and nutrition (Gupta and Mondal, 2019). Goats exhibit exceptional resilience to climate fluctuations compared to larger ruminants because of their physiological, behavioral and morphological adaptations (Nair et al., 2021). India hosts various region-specific livestock breeds, each suited to distinct macroclimatic conditions (Ramachandran and Sejian, 2022). The Black Bengal goat, native to Bangladesh and eastern India, is valued for its small size, high reproductive efficiency and superior meat and skin qualities (Chowdhury et al., 2010). Despite their adaptive characteristics, goat productivity can be affected by extreme weather conditions (Lima et al., 2022). Evaluating adaptability involves immediate physiological responses, such as changes in rectal temperature, respiratory rate, pulse rate and sweating, as well as long-term biochemical adaptations, including changes in blood chemistry and heat resistance-related gene expression (Leite et al., 2021). Blood biochemistry indicates an animal’s health, metabolic patterns and adaptive responses to environmental conditions (Leite et al., 2021). Endocrine responses and antioxidant status are crucial metrics for assessing heat stress adaptability in livestock (Sejian et al., 2021). The temperature-humidity index (THI) is used to evaluate heat stress in livestock. Various THI models have been used to assess heat stress in goats. Srivastava et al., (2021) compared THI models to evaluate environmental stress in goats under semi-arid conditions and identified suitable models for these regions. Understanding the relationship between physio-biochemical parameters and THI is essential for predicting the environmental impacts across seasons in goats. Although the Black Bengal goat is adapted to arid and semi-arid regions (Leite et al., 2021), research on its year-round adaptability is limited. Most studies have focused on summer, monsoon and winter, with a gap in comparative evaluations across all seasons. This study aimed to compare the adaptability of Black Bengal goats across all four seasons by evaluating biochemical, mineral and hormonal parameters and oxidative stress indicators.

    MATERIALS AND METHODS

    The study was conducted at the Instructional Livestock Farm of Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna, India (latitude 25o35'N, longitude 85o05'E, elevation 53 meters). The climate experiences temperatures from 6oC to 42oC, with relative humidity between 30% and 75%. Twenty healthy female Black Bengal goats, weighing 30-35 kg and aged 1.5-2 years, were selected. Standard vaccination and deworming procedures were followed. The goats were managed under a semi-intensive system, grazing daily from 7:00 to 11:30 a.m. Consistent management practices and hygiene were maintained. The Institutional Animal Ethics Committee approved all protocols. The study covered four seasons: summer (May-June), monsoon (July-August), post-monsoon (October-November) and winter (December- January). Physiological measurements and blood samples were collected between 12:00 and 1:00 PM each season. Meteorological data, including rainfall, dry and wet bulb temperatures and maximum and minimum temperatures, were obtained from Patna Airport meteorological station, one kilometer from the site. Relative humidity was calculated using a psychrometric chart and bulb temperatures. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) was determined using the formula by Srivastava et al., (2021):.


     
    Where
    Tdb  = Represents dry bulb temperature (oC).
    RH = Denotes relative humidity (%).
                   
    A total of 160 blood samples were collected from 20 goats at 15-day intervals. Serum was separated by centrifugation at 800 × g for 15 min and stored at -20oC. Serum metabolites, including total protein, albumin, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine and enzymes like alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST), were measured using Coral Clinical Systems diagnostic kits. Electrolytes and minerals were assessed with these kits following manufacturer’s guidelines. Hormone levels, including T3, T4, TSH and cortisol, were evaluated using Bioassay Technology Laboratory ELISA kits. Lipid peroxidation was determined by quantifying malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration (Stock and Dormandy, 1971). Serum superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was measured using the MTT reduction method (Madesh and Balasubramanian, 1998). Catalase (CAT) activity was assessed by measuring hydrogen peroxide decomposition rate (Aebi, 1983). Reduced glutathione (GSH) concentration and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were determined (Prins and Loos, 1969; Benzie and Strain, 1996). Repeated measures ANOVA analyzed seasonal variations, with significant differences identified at 95% confidence using Duncan’s multiple range test in SPSS Statistical software 29.

    RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

    Table 1 outlines the average monthly and seasonal meteorological variables recorded during the study. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) was high (>85) in the summer and monsoon seasons, moderate (>77) in the post-monsoon season and within the comfort range (<65) during winter. These THI values indicate that goats experienced severe heat stress in the summer and monsoon seasons, moderate heat stress in the post-monsoon season and were in a thermocomfort zone during winter (Hamzaoui et al., 2013). Consequently, conserving and promoting locally adapted breeds is an effective approach to counteract the effects of climate change, as these native breeds often show enhanced resilience to specific climatic challenges (Inbaraj et al., 2018). Although goats are known for their hardiness (Nair et al., 2021), prolonged exposure to high temperatures and humidity still induces physiological stress (El-Tarabany et al., 2017).

    Table 1: Metrological condition during experiment.


           
    The THI is a useful metric to evaluate environmental stress. Specific THI values above 77 denote moderate stress, while those above 85 indicate severe stress (Silanikove, 2000). Our study observed THI values exceeding 85 during the summer and monsoon, aligning with severe heat stress conditions and THI values around 78 and 63 in the post-monsoon and winter, respectively, indicating moderate and thermocomfort conditions. These findings support earlier reports that high THI values are associated with adverse physiological and biochemical changes (El-Tarabany et al., 2017).
           
    Table 2 presents the average concentrations of serum biochemical, mineral, hormonal and antioxidant parameters. Statistical analysis revealed no significant seasonal differences in total protein concentration, in agreement with Perveen et al., (2019), who also reported stable protein levels across seasons. However, other studies (Bobade et al., 2020) noted increased protein levels during heat stress, possibly due to the involvement of plasma proteins in gluconeogenesis, which may lead to decreased albumin levels (Yue et al., 2020; Mehaba et al., 2021). Our findings of lower albumin and higher globulin levels in summer support this mechanism and suggest hemoconcentration due to plasma volume reduction under heat stress (Nohara et al., 2022). Increased activity in hot conditions might also lower albumin levels (Scharf et al., 2010). Blood glucose levels were significantly higher in winter and lowest in summer (P<0.05), likely due to increased glucose demand and reduced intake during heat stress (Scharf et al., 2010; Banerjee et al., 2015). BUN levels varied significantly across seasons (P<0.05), with higher levels during monsoon and lower in winter, which may reflect increased protein breakdown and reduced renal blood flow due to dehydration (Indu et al., 2014; Chaudhary et al., 2015). Impaired ammonia utilization by rumen microflora may also contribute (Yadav et al., 2022). Creatinine levels were significantly higher during the post-monsoon and winter seasons, with the lowest levels in monsoon. ALT activity showed a seasonal decline, being significantly higher in summer and lower in winter, while AST activity remained unchanged. Heat stress results in a significant increase in serum ALT and AST activities (Soni et al., 2022).

    Table 2: Seasonal variation in serum biochemical, mineral, hormonal and antioxidant parameters.


           
    Sodium and potassium concentrations were significantly higher (P<0.05) in summer, monsoon and post-monsoon compared to winter, possibly due to dehydration and related physiological adjustments (Rathwa et al., 2017). Chloride levels increased significantly in monsoon, post-monsoon and winter compared to summer. Zinc concentration was significantly higher in winter (P<0.05), whereas copper did not show significant seasonal variation. These findings align with earlier reports on decreased levels of zinc and copper under stress (Noaman, 2014; Ganger et al., 2016; Manimaran et al., 2024). The reduction in magnesium levels may result from the shift of ions between cellular compartments under chronic stress (Pickering et al., 2020). Calcium levels were significantly higher in winter and phosphorus showed significant seasonal variation, with the highest levels during monsoon. These trends may reflect improved dietary intake and absorption during cooler seasons (Lima et al., 2021; Rathwa et al., 2017; Ganger et al., 2016).
           
    Hormonal and oxidative stress markers. T3, T4 and TSH levels were significantly higher during post-monsoon and winter and lower during summer, which supports the idea that animals suppress metabolic hormones under thermal stress to reduce internal heat production (Todini, 2007; Pragna et al., 2018). Cortisol levels were significantly elevated in summer and monsoon, indicating heat-induced stress responses and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (Sejian et al., 2008). Elevated cortisol supports energy mobilization during stress and aligns with previous findings (Chergui et al., 2017; Shaji et al., 2017).
           
    Oxidative stress responses also exhibited seasonal trends. MDA levels, a marker of lipid peroxidation, peaked during summer and monsoon, indicating increased reactive oxygen species (Abdelnour et al., 2019). Correspondingly, SOD and CAT activities were significantly higher in these seasons, suggesting a compensatory antioxidant response (Lakhani et al., 2020; Karthik et al., 2021). GSH concentrations were also elevated, possibly due to increased activity of glutathione-S-transferase (Bernabucci et al., 2002; Dhanasree et al., 2020). The total antioxidant capacity (TAC), measured using the FRAP assay, was significantly higher in winter, indicating enhanced endogenous antioxidant activity during cooler periods (Benzie and Devaki, 2018). These results are consistent with other studies demonstrating seasonal regulation of antioxidant defense systems (Gujar et al., 2024; Giri et al., 2019; Khushboo et al., 2020).

    CONCLUSION

    Our research highlights the considerable impact of seasonal changes on the physiological and biochemical parameters of goats. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) values indicated severe heat stress during the summer and monsoon seasons, moderate stress during the post-monsoon period and comfort during winter. Although goats are naturally adaptable, their metabolic, hormonal and oxidative stress responses are negatively influenced by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. Seasonal variations in serum proteins, enzymes and minerals suggest adaptive responses to environmental stress, with significant changes in albumin, globulin and glucose levels observed during the summer. This study underscores the importance of monitoring thyroid hormones and cortisol as stress indicators, particularly during hot seasons. Oxidative stress markers, such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), further confirm the harmful effects of high temperatures on goats. These findings highlight the need for targeted management strategies to alleviate the negative effects of seasonal stress on goats, thereby ensuring their well-being and productivity throughout the year.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    Authors acknowledge the Hon’ble, Vice chancellor, Bihar Animal Sciences University, Patna for financial support.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    The experiment was conducted following the necessary approval from the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee  (IAEC) of the Bihar Veterinary College, approval was granted by IAEC vide IAEC/BVC/20/15 dated 24.07.2020.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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