Results of different reproductive and productive parameters are depicted in Table 1.
Age at sexual maturity
In present study the age at sexual maturity was recorded as 26.00±0.36 months which were higher than the findings of
Balamurgan et al., (2020). Das (2020) also reported higher age at sexual maturity in case of local cattle of Mizoram (Zobawng). The present finding of age at sexual maturity might be higher than the other breeds of cattle due to very harsh life of Meetei San for feeds and fodder along with lack of grazing pasture and poor managemental practices.
Length of oestrous cycle
Length of oestrous cycle of female local cattle of Manipur was recorded as 21.50±0.13 days. Almost similar finding was reported by
Das (2020). The length of oestrous cycle varies from breed to breed (
Hafez and Hafez, 2000).
Duration of oestrus
The duration of oestrus of female local cattle of Manipur was 18.43±0.11 hours.
Das (2020) found lower oestrual periods in Mizoram local cattle. Almost similar findings with the research work were reported by
Quinlan et al., (1941). Duration of oestrus varies among the different breeds.
Oestrous behaviour or signs
Restlessness
In the present study, 100% of the experimental animals showed restlessness on oestrus period, which was higher than the finding of
Das (2020) and similar with the result of
Bhattacharyya et al., (2017). Restlessness occurs at the oestrus period due to the high level of estrogens in the circulatory system (
Hafez and Hafez, 2000).
Frequent urination
Present study showed 70% of the experimental animals had frequent urination on oestrus days.
Bhattacharyya et al., (2017) found lower values and
Das (2020) found higher value than the present study.
Tail raising
Tail raising behavior was observed in 20% animals on oestrus days. The present finding is supported by the findings of
Bhattacharya et al., (2017) and
Das (2020).
Bellowing
Bellowing sign in the experimental animals was observed in 90%.
Negussie et al., (2002) found higher value and
Das (2020) found lower value than the present finding.
Genital discharge
All the experimental animals showed genital discharge during oestrus
. Result of present study was supported by the findings of the
Bhattacharyya et al., (2017); Das (2020) and
Negussie et al., (2002). Genital discharge occurs on oestrus due to the higher level of estrogen in the circulation and varies from breed to breed
(Bhattacharyya et al., 2017).
Homosexual behavior
In present study 20% found that only homosexual behavior among the all experimental animals. Findings of the
Bhattacharyya et al., (2017) showed higher value than present study. Similar finding was reported by
Das (2020). Homosexual behavior occurs mainly due to the high estrogenic level on oestrus.
Physical signs of oestrus
Swelling of the vulva
Marked Swelling of the vulva was found in 60%, moderate swelling in 20% of the local female cattle of Manipur and mild swelled in 20% of the animals in present study. The present finding is supported by the reports of
Bhattacharyya et al., (2017) and
Das (2020). Findings of
Negussie et al., (2002) showed higher value than the present study. Bulging of the vulva occurs due to hormonal influence of estrogens.
Hyperemia of the vulval mucous membrane
Present study revealed hyperemia of the vulval mucus membrane in 80% of the animals. Findings of
Bhattacharyya et al., (2017) and
Das (2020) showed similar results with the present study. Present finding is also supported by
Talukdar (2010). Hyperemia of the vulval mucous membrane occurs due to hormonal effect during oestrus.
Characteristics of genital discharge
In present study it was found that the color of the genital discharge was clear among 90% of the animals and opaque among the 10% of the all female cattle of Manipur. The quantity was found to be plenty in 60% of the cases. Findings of
Das (2020) showed similar results with the present study. Amount of genital discharge varied from breed to breed and as well as the genital organs wellness (
Bhattacharyya et al., 2017).
Age at first service
The average age at first fertile service in the present study for local female cattle of Manipur was 27.00± 0.36 months. The result of the present study regarding age at the first fertile service was found to be similar with the findings of
Majumder et al. (2003). Lower age at first fertile service than the present finding was reported by
Dhara (1999). The higher values for age at the first fertile service than the present finding was reported by
Singha et al., (1990) The variation of results reported by different workers with the present findings might be due to the differences in breed, plane of nutrition, housing, climate etc. Normal age at first fertile service of crossbred cattle under tropical region should be in the range of 15 to 20 months (
Rahman and Alemam, 2008). Poor quality fodder, stall fed housing system and environmental stress during summer might have resulted in higher age at first fertile service in local female cattle of Manipur recorded in the present study.
Age at first calving
In the present study, the average age at first calving (AFC) in local female cattle of Manipur was 37.35±0.33 months. The comparable finding of age at first calving for present study was reported by
Kaye (2017). The shorter age at first calving than the results of present study was reported
Das (2010) in crossbred cattle of Assam. The higher age at first calving than the current study was reported by
Thakur and Singh (2005). The variation of results reported by different workers with the present findings might be due to the differences in breed, plane of nutrition, housing, climate
etc.
Gestation period
Length of gestation period was recorded 280.10±0.17 days in the present study. Findings of
Balamurgan et al., (2020) and
Das (2020) showed almost similar results with the present study. The gestation period is not greatly altered in response to variations in feeding, housing,
etc. rather all these factors affect the sizes of developing foetuses. The overall gestation period of the present investigation in local female cattle of Manipur was aligned within normal range.
Daily milk production
The average daily milk production for local female cattle of Manipur was found to be 2.86±0.03 kg. Higher average daily milk yields than to present study was reported by
Singh et al., (2015) for crossbred cow. The average daily milk yield in crossbred cattle within moderate climatic conditions holds paramount significance for dairy farming sustainability. The genetic potential of crossbred cattle, particularly when crossbred with other breeds, amplifies their adaptability and resilience, resulting in improved milk production. Moderate climates contribute to cattle well-being, minimizing heat stress and optimizing feed intake, thereby enhancing overall milk yield.
Total milk production
The total milk production for local female cattle of Manipur was found to be 363.34±5.86 kg. The results obtained in the present study are comparable to reports of
Prasanna et al., (2023). The higher lactation yields compared to the present findings were reported by
Japheth et al., (2015) for crossbred cows. Lactation yield is a crucial economic trait in dairy animals, representing the performance of a dairy animal based on the amount of milk it produces during a specific lactation period. The milk yield not only directly impacts the economic productivity of the animal but also plays a significant role in determining the overall economic viability of dairy enterprises. Under Indian condition, lactation yield of crossbred cattle varies from 2453 to 5256 liters (
Shastry and Thomas, 2021). By providing good quality fodder and by following stress free loose housing system, productivity of the local female cattle of Manipur could be increased.
Lactation length
The lactation length of local female cattle of Manipur reared under farm condition was found to be 407.23±1.83 days. The finding of the lactation length documented in this investigation was agreement with
Mishra et al. (1997). The lower lactation length compared to present study was reported by
Prasanna et al. (2023). Inter-calving period of 365 days (12 months) with lactation length 305 days and 60 days dry period is considered as ideal for cross bred dairy cattle. However, inter-calving period up to 15 months can be considered good under Indian condition
Shastry and Thomas (2021) and
Rahman and Alemam (2008) acknowledged that the inter-calving period is at least not less than 14 months in crossbred cattle.
Dry period
The dry period of local female cattle of Manipur was found to be 148.00±3.00. Lower dry period with present study were reported by
Gautam and Khadka (2022). Longer dry periods compared to present results were reported by
Das (1995);
Rahman and Kalita (2015). The dry period of a dairy cow is a critical aspect that reflects both productive and reproductive efficiency. Achieving an optimum dry period is desirable for several reasons. If the dry period is too short, it can negatively impact the foetal growth of a pregnant cow and may also affect production of milk in the subsequent lactation. Conversely, an excessively prolonged dry period serves as an indicator of poor productive and reproductive efficiency in a cow. Therefore, maintaining the right balance in the duration of the dry period is crucial for ensuring the overall health, well-being andperformance of dairy cows.
Rahman and Alemam (2008) regarded 60 days as standard dry period of cows, however,
Pezeshki et al., (2010) advocated for an 8-week dry period as the long-standing gold standard in the management of dairy cows.
Inter calving period
The inter- calving period for local female cattle of Manipur was found to be 555.23±3.97 days. This finding aligns with similar observations made by
Wangdi et al., (2014). The lower calving interval to current findings was reported by
Prasanna et al., (2023). The calving interval is the time interval between two successive calving andit serves as a crucial index for evaluating a cattle herd’s reproductive efficiency. It is considered one of the best indicators of breeding and reproductive performance in a herd. An ideal calving interval is desirable as it contributes to increased lifetime productive performance of the animal. Long calving intervals may also be caused by environmental variables, ineffective reproductive management practices, such as incorrect heat detection, premature insemination, incompetent AI personnel andan inadequate and poor-quality feed supply
(Fernando et al., 2016). Overall, a shorter and well-managed calving interval is indicative of improved reproductive efficiency and positively impacts the overall productivity of the animal.
Open days
The result of the present research pertaining to open days of local female cattle of Manipur was 275.13±3.95 days. Shorter open days than the present findings were reported
Prasanna et al., (2023). Higher open days compared to present study were reported by
Sreedhar et al., (2013). The Normal standard open days for cattle is established to be within the range of 60-90 days. However, in the present study service period has surpasses this normal range, which might be due to reproductive disorders, nutritional deficiencies, stall feeding housing system.
Number of service per conception
The number of services per conception for local female cattle of Manipur at farm condition of Manipur was 2.28±0.12. The similar finding of present study is reported by
Vijayakumar et al., (2019). Lower number of service per conception than present study was reported by
Tomar et al., (2023). Number of Services per conception (NSPC) is one of the measurements for reproductive efficiency. It expresses the fertility level of the dairy herds. It is simple and easy to calculate and understand and it is a good measure of reproductive status, however, it usually does not indicate reasons on heifers and cows that fail to conceive. The higher number of services per conception noted in the present study suggests moderate reproductive efficiency of the local cattle. Poor quality of fodder available in the area combined with stress of stall-feeding practice might have affected the reproductive health of the cattle, leading to higher number of services per conception in the present study.
