Indian Journal of Animal Research

  • Chief EditorK.M.L. Pathak

  • Print ISSN 0367-6722

  • Online ISSN 0976-0555

  • NAAS Rating 6.50

  • SJR 0.263

  • Impact Factor 0.4 (2024)

Frequency :
Monthly (January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December)
Indexing Services :
Science Citation Index Expanded, BIOSIS Preview, ISI Citation Index, Biological Abstracts, Scopus, AGRICOLA, Google Scholar, CrossRef, CAB Abstracting Journals, Chemical Abstracts, Indian Science Abstracts, EBSCO Indexing Services, Index Copernicus
Submit

Review Article

Influence of Feed and Feeding Strategies on Rumen Microbiome: A Review

Valli Chinnamani1,*, R. Murugeswari2, G. Srinivasan3, A. Ruba Nanthini2
1Faculty of Basic Sciences, Madras Veterinary College Campus, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai-600 051, Tamil Nadu, India.
2Institute of Animal Nutrition, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai-600 051, Tamil Nadu, India.
3Pulikulam Cattle Research Station, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai-600 051, Tamil Nadu, India.

ABSTRACT

The presence of complex microorganisms in the rumen of ruminants are able to process the lignocellulose from low quality feed and fodder into volatile fatty acids, convert non-protein nitrogen into microbial protein and synthesize B vitamins, thus, ruminants are able to produce food of animal origin without competition for feed with non-ruminants and man. On the other hand, they contribute 14 per cent of anthropogenic methane, released annually into the atmosphere. Manipulating the rumen microbiome is considered as an important approach to reduce environmental impact, while increasing production efficiency in ruminants. A systematic literature search was undertaken and relevant research and review articles were downloaded, classified and salient points extracted to prepare the narrative review on “Influence of Feed and Feeding strategies on Rumen microbiome”. The microbial community in the rumen is the most diverse composed of bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and uncharacterized virome. Differences in ruminal microbial community compositions are predominantly attributable to diet. Dietary manipulation offers a viable solution to alter the rumen microbiome so that the present-day challenges faced by the ruminant livestock industry is addressed.

INTRODUCTION

The organization for economic cooperation and development (OECD) - FAO, Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032, forecasts a continued growth in the demand and production of meat and dairy in the decade ahead (FAO, 2023) World milk production is projected to grow at 1.6 % per annum, faster than most other main agricultural commodities, the per capita consumption of fresh dairy products is also projected to increase by 1.0% per annum over the coming decade, faster than over the past ten years, driven by higher per-capita income growth (FAO, 2019). Global demand for meat is also growing and over the past 50 years, meat production has more than tripled, the world now produces more than 340 million tonnes of meat per year. Ruminants contribute substantially to the production of milk, meat, provide products such as skins, bones, dung, heating material and are draft animals (Flachowsky et al., 2013). The presence of complex microorganisms in the rumen of ruminants (Hungate, 1966) are able to process the lignocellulose from low quality feed and fodder into volatile fatty acids, convert non-protein nitrogen into microbial protein and synthesize B vitamins, thus are able to produce food of animal origin without competition for feed with non-ruminants and man (Flachowsky et al., 2017). However, ruminant livestock production is responsible for approximately 14% of anthropogenic methane, released annually into the atmosphere (Gerber et al., 2013) which, is not only a major problem to the environment, but also causes a loss of 2 to 8% of the feed energy as methane (IPCC, 2006). Improvements in the production efficiency of ruminants between the period 2000 to 2018 has led to decline in methane intensity of meat and milk from ruminants in most regions of the world, despite this decrease in methane intensity, total methane emitted globally by ruminants increased during the same period (Chang et al., 2021). Hence, avenues are being sought to decrease the emissions of greenhouse gases from ruminants while simultaneously increasing production to meet the rising demand for animal products (Ungerfeld et al., 2022). Improvement of rumen efficiency can be achieved by manipulating animal diet, improving host microbial interactions and plant microbial interactions to maximise productivity whilst reducing environmental costs (Huws et al., 2018). Microbiota manipulation has been attempted to improve energy harvesting, reduce methane emission, to prevent and treat ruminal diseases (Malmuthuge and Guan, 2017; McCann et al., 2016). It is in this context that this narrative review was conceptualized and written.

Rumen microbiome
 
The microbial community in the rumen is the most diverse gut ecosystems of the animal kingdom (Weimer, 2015). It is composed of bacteria (1010 to 1011 organisms/ml) archaea (108 to 109 organisms/ml), protozoa (105 to 106 organisms/ml), fungi (103 to 104 organisms/ml) and uncharacterized virome (Newbold and Ramos, 2020). The Hungate 1000 project, has produced 501 genomes (480 bacteria and 21 archaea) from rumen microbes (Seshadri et al., 2018). Members of the genera Fibrobacter and Ruminococcus are predominant fiber-digesting bacteria in the rumen, specifically the species Fibrobacter succinogenes, Ruminococcus flavefaciens and Ruminococcus albus (Koike and Kobayashi, 2001). Ruminants harbour distinct protozoal populations from birth, the most common protozoa in the rumen are ciliates, with a few flagellate species (Williams and Coleman, 1992). Predominant protozoal genera in the rumen are Entodinium, Epidinium, Metadinium, Diploplastron, Polyplastron and Diplodinium (Lima et al., 2015). Anaerobic fungi represent 10 to 20% of the rumen microbiome and they are thought to be crucial fibre degraders (Krause et al., 2013). There are 5 major fungal phyla, which include 55 fungal genera, the predominant genera are Ascomycota (27%), Basidiomycota (3%) and Neocallimastigomycota (1%) (Kumar et al., 2015). However, Belanche et al., (2019) reported that the majority of the fungal species were anaerobic and belonged to Neocallimastigomycota. The most abundant archaeal phylum in the rumen was Euryarchaeota (99%), ten archaeal genera were detected in the rumen and the most abundant genus was Methanobrevibacter (91%) (Zhou et al., 2017). Ruminal methanogens have been broadly clustered into 3 distinct genera Methanobrevibacter, Methanosphaera and Metha nomassiliicoccales in dairy cows (Zhu et al., 2017; Pitta et al., 2021).
 
Effect of feed type on rumen microbiome
 
A global comparison study of the rumen microbiome concluded that, a common core of bacteria and archaea dominated in nearly all samples, differences in microbial community compositions were predominantly attributable to diet (Henderson et al., 2015). Calves fed with milk and concentrate are reported to have a higher relative abundance of methanogens and bacteria known to degrade readily fermentable carbohydrates than milk only fed calves (Dias et al., 2017). Firmicutes and Bacteroidota were the two major bacterial phyla detected in preweaning calves (Li et al., 2019; Dias et al., 2018), Firmicutes was dominant in high-grain diets, while Bacteroidota was dominant in hay diets (Faniyi et al., 2019). Calf starter fed to calves from the seventh day onward led to the emergence of Prevotella as the predominant rumen bacterium by fourteenth day, Megasphaera species increased between 7 and 14 days and Butyrivibrio, Succinivibrio, Catenibacterium increased after 14th day with decline in Streptococcus and Lactobacillus. Archaeal species increased by 28th day (O’Hara et al., 2020). Calves fed milk replacer at 0.749 kg/d had a higher proportion of ruminal fibrolytic bacteria (B. fibrisolvens  and Clostridium cluster IV) than calves fed 1.498 kg of milk replacer/d for 5 weeks (Hao et al., 2021).
       
High forage diets, in comparison to high-concentrate diets, promoted higher bacterial diversity and abundance of Bacteroides, Fibrobacter and Ruminococcus (Wang et al., 2019a). On feeding hay, higher relative abundances of Prevotella, Eubacterium, Oscillibacter and Succiniclasticum and lower relative abundances of Ruminococcus, Clostridium and Olsenella were identified compared with the feeding of high concentrate (Kim et al., 2018). High concentrate diets negatively affected protozoal growth (Hristov et al., 2001). Large increases in grain feeding increased the abundances of Selenomonas ruminantium, Streptococcus bovis and Prevotella bryantii while decreasing the abundances of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens and Fibrobacter succinogenes in rumen digesta (Fernando et al., 2010). During subacute rumen acidosis induced by high grain diet or sudden change from high forages to a grain based diet, a decline in the population of Bacteroidetes occurred (Cardo, 2015). The relative abundances of the phyla Bacteroidetes, Fibrobacteres, Verruomicrobia and Proteobacteria were higher in low SARA risk lambs, Firmicutes, Tenericutes and Actinobacteria were higher in the high SARA risk lambs (Li et al., 2017). High concentrate diet in goats can induce ruminal microbiota dysbiosis, phylum-wide shift in the Cyanobacteria and Verrucomicrobia (Hua et al., 2017). Rumen bacterial composition of goats fed with high grain diet had relative abundance of Actinobacteria and lower relative abundance of Tenericutes, Verrucomicrobia, Proteobacteria and Fibrobacteres, no significant differences were observed in relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes between hay and high grain fed goats (Zhang et al., 2018). High proportions of rapidly fermented carbohydrates and low ruminal pH resulted in rapid proliferation of Streptoccosus bovis and Lactobacillus sp. (McCann et al., 2016). Dairy goats fed high levels of rumen degradable starch, promoted lower levels of genes encoding for enzymes involved in cellulose degradation and starch branching which were mostly present in Prevotellaceae, Ruminococcaceae and Bacteroidaceae (Shen et al., 2020). High concentrate diets increased the relative abundance of Eubacterium spp., Clostridium  spp., Ruminococcus spp., Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium  spp. and decreased the relative abundance of Prevotella spp., Fibrobacter succinogenes and Bacteroides  spp (Zhang et al., 2020a). 
       
In Sunit sheep that were only grazed or adopted to barn feeding with grazing the concentrations of propionic acid were negatively correlated to the abundance of Bacteroides and positively correlated to Ruminococcus  (Wang et al., 2018). Belanche et al., (2019) reported that the adaptation process from non-grazing to grazing diet led to an increase in the microbial concentration, diversity, microbial network complexity and resulted in the abundance of key microbes Ruminococcus, Butyrivibrio, Orpinomyces, Prevotella, Entodiniinae, Streptococcus, Selenomonas and Methanomassiliicoccaceae. 
 
Feed energy and protein levels on rumen microbiome
 
There was an increase in the number of Bacteroidetes within the rumen in buffalo fed high levels of hay, which decreased the dietary energy concentration (Pitta et al., 2014a). Relative abundance of Firmicutes, Lachnospiraceae, Veillonellaceae, Saccharofermentants Erysipelotrichaceae and Butyrivibrio were reported in high feed intake, Mao et al., (2012) indicated that the abundance of Prevotella was highly correlated with the content of crude protein. Protozoa and fungi count remained unchanged with increasing levels of crude protein, but archaea counts increased (Chanthakhoun et al., 2012). Increasing crude protein raised proteolytic bacteria abundance (Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens and Prevotella ruminicola) in crossbred beef steers fed total mixed ration (Wang et al., 2017). A diet with 5.3% ruminally degradable protein resulted in a higher bacterial nitrogen flow 415 g/d as opposed to 365 g/d when 4.8% ruminally degradable protein was fed (Volden et al., 1999). Reducing 30% lysine via rumen protected lysine significantly decreased relative abundance of Firmicutes (Kong et al., 2020). Low energy diet increased the relative abundance of phyla of Fibrobacteres whereas, at the genus level, it increased the relative abundance of Butyrivibrio and Prevotellaceae (Li et al., 2020). Srinivasan et al., (2023) reported that Methanogen belonging to the order Methanomassiliico ccales was not present in the rumen liquor of Pulikulam cattle fed high energy diet.
 
Feed processing on rumen microbiome
 
Pelleting high grain TMR altered the rumen fermentation and amplified the ruminal microbiome, Fibrobacteres was significantly decreased in the high grain TMR pelleted group, pelleting resulted in a decrease in the percentage of unclassified BS11 gut group and Succiniclasticum, while it led to an increase in the abundance of simple sugar fermenters like Megasphaera, Olsenella, Dialister and Sharpea (Trabi et al., 2019). Chopping roughage increased ruminal bacteria Papillibacter and Eubacterium hallii which are involved in butyrate production and also increased Synergistetes and Mogibacterium, which are involved in bacterial colonization (Wang et al., 2020). In yearling sheep, feeding pelleted hay led to increase in bacterial richness and was positively associated with several Succiniclasticum, Prevotella and uncultured taxa in the Ruminococcaceae and Rickenellaceae families and Bacteroidales order (Ishaq et al., 2019b). The relative abundance of Prevotella was significantly increased while the relative abundance of Succinivibrionaceae was decreased in cattle fed whole-plant corn silage compared with those fed corn straw silage (Cui et al., 2022).  

Fat or fatty acid supplementation on rumen microbes
 
Vegetable oil supplementation reduced rumen protozoan population in ruminants and also resulted in a negative effect on cellulolytic bacteria causing inhibitory effects of the fibre digestion (Ibrahim et al., 2021). Ruminal microorganisms belonging to the genera Fibrobacter, Ruminocuccus, Butyrivibrio and Prevotella can be very sensitive to fat (Huws et al., 2014). Soybean oil and linseed oil supplementation potentially decreased the populations of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, Ruminococcus albus and F. succinogenes and decreased total volatile fatty acid production in the rumen (Yang et al., 2009). Studies have shown that linseed and linseed oil affect the bacteria communities in the rumen, especially the cellulolytic group (Enjalbert et al., 2017). 
       
Dietary PUFA can influence the composition of the rumen microbiota (Fievez et al., 2007). Oil rich supplement containing C18:2n-6 and C18:3n-3 inhibited the growth of fibrolytic fungi, Fibrobacter succinogenes and Ruminococcus flavefaciens in the rumen and suppressed the methanogenesis (Zhang et al., 2008). Hristov et al., (2013) reported that both C18:2n-6 and C18:3n-3 were effective to decrease rumen ciliate. Coconut oil, which has a high MCFA content, is more toxic to protozoa and fibrolytic bacteria, moreover, it selectively inhibits certain ruminal archaea populations (Patra and Yu, 2014). Supplementation of MCFA at 0.063 per cent dietary DM may not affect overall animal performance or total tract nutrient digestibility but decrease the daily range of pH and the bacterial richness in the rumen (Burdick et al., 2022). Ca soap supplementation increased protozoa population in cull ewes (Bhat et al.,  2013). The supplementation of rumen protected fat increased the population of F. succinogenes  and R. albus significantly as compared to the diet without rumen protected fat while the population of R. flavefaciens and total cellulolytic bacteria was found significantly lowest in the diet Ca soap (Behan et al., 2019). 
 
Mineral and vitamin supplementation on rumen microbes
 
Trace mineral supply from rumen sustained release boluses influenced rumen microbiota of lactating yaks, relative abundances of Planctomycetes tended to be higher and the Erysipelotrichaceae and Tenericutes bacterium tended to be lower in mineral supplementation (Zhao et al., 2022). The population of Dasytricha ruminantium, Ophryoscolex caudatus, Polyplastron multivesiculatum and Diploplastron affine were significantly higher in sheep supplemented with organic or inorganic Se than in animals given the basal diet alone (Mihalikova et al., 2005). Dietary Se increased total bacteria, total anaerobic fungi, total protozoa, Ruminococcus albus,  Ruminococcus flavefaciens, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens (Zhang et al., 2020b; Liu et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020c). Dietary supplementation of alkaline mineral complex buffer, in Holstein Friesian cows in transition period changed the composition and structure of rumen microorganisms it considerably increased the abundance of Firmicutes Ruminococcaceae and Christensenellaceae considerably 14 days before the expected delivery date (Guo et al., 2023). Total rumen bacterial evenness and diversity in rams were reduced by supplementation with a Zn AA complex, but not in rams supplemented with an equal concentration of ZnSO4, likely due to differences in bioavailability between organic and inorganically sourced supplement formulations (Ishaq et al., 2019a). Supplementing with Na2SO4 increased the diversity and the richness of rumen microbiota and the relative abundances of the phylum Firmicutes and genera Ruminococcus 2, Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group and Desulfovibrio, whereas it decreased the relative abundances of the phylum Bacteroidetes and genera  Prevotella 1, Prevotellaceae UCG-001 and Treponema 2 (Zhao et al., 2022). Major cellulolytic bacteria like Ruminococcus albus, Ruminococcus flavefaciens and anaerobic fungi in the rumen Neocallimastix require thiamine for optimal proliferation (Kandathil and Bandla, 2019). Activity of cellulase and populations of total bacteria, protozoa, fungi, dominant cellulolytic bacteria, Prevotella ruminicola and Ruminobacter amylophilus increased linearly with increase in levels of riboflavin supplementation in Holstein bulls (Wu et al., 2021).
 
Phytobiotics on rumen microbiome
 
Herbal extracts from different sources may have stimulatory or inhibitory effects on fibrolytic bacteria due to their non volatile compounds (Khovidhunkit et al., 2000). Essential oils have inhibitory effects on gram-positive bacteria due to main bioactive compounds (Cristani et al., 2007; Khorrami et al., 2015). A study by Patra and Yu (2014) observed that protozoa population decreased, but increased abundances of Ruminococcus flavefaciens, Prevotella bryantii, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, Prevotella ruminicola, Clostridium aminophilum and Ruminobacter amylophilus with increasing doses of vanillin. Calves receiving 4 mL/d of phytobiotic-rich herbal extract (Immunofin, IMPE) had a greater abundance of total bacteria, Ruminococcus albus, Ruminococcus flavefaciens and Fibrobacter succinogenes (Jahani-Azizabadi et al., 2022). Saponins not only have adverse effects on rumen protozoa but also affect specific bacteria and fungi (Wang et al., 2019b). Supplementation with low levels (10 g/cattle per day) of tea saponin could significantly increase total VFAs and the relative abundances of a variety of microbiota including Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Saccharomyces and Aspergillus (Qu et al., 2023).
       
Supplementations of rain tree pod meal (0 and 60 g/kg of total DM intake), containing crude tannins and saponins at 84 and 143 g/kg of DM, did not affect total bacterial, Ruminococus albus and viable proteolytic bacteria, however the numbers of fungi, cellulolytic bacteria, Fibrobactor succinogenes and Ruminococus flavefaciens were higher while amylolytic bacteria was lower and the population of Fibrobactor succinogenes, was found to be higher (Anantasook et al., 2013). An increased abundance of Prevotellaceae but decreased abundances of Ruminococcaceae and Lachnospiraceae were observed in young growing cattle after they were fed saponins (Wang et al., 2019b). 
       
The inclusion of chestnut tannins led to the enrichment of the genera Anaerovibrio, Bibersteinia, Escherichia, Pseudobutyrivibrio and Streptococcus (Mannelli et al., 2019). The abundance of Ruminococcus flavefaciens, methanogenic archaea and protozoa populations were reduced, whereas total ruminal bacteria were enhanced in the presence of condensed tannins (Fagundes et al., 2020).  The relative abundances of Methanobrevibacter and total methanogens decreased following supplementation with red seaweed extracts, which was consistent with the decreased CH4 production (Choi et al., 2022).
 
Feed efficiency and rumen microbial diversity
 
A lower abundance of active bacterial families of Lachnospiraceae, Lactobacillaceae and Veillonellaceae have been reported in animals with high feed efficiency (Li and Guan, 2017). Lower abundance of archaeal species of Methanobrevibacter smithii were present in the rumen contents of animals with higher feed efficiency (Carberry et al., 2014). In high-efficiency animals, Selenomonas and members of the Succinivibrionaceae family positively interacted with each other (Xue et al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

The rumen microbial community is affected by a great number of internal and external factors, such as host, physiological status, diet and environment (Pitta et al., 2014b). The fundamental knowledge on rumen microbes will lead to the development of advanced methods to manipulate the rumen microbiome and thereby improve the production efficiency of ruminants (Wang et al., 2023).  Dietary manipulation offers a viable solution to alter the rumen microbiome so that the present-day challenges faced by the ruminant livestock industry is addressed (Stanton et al., 2019). Recent advances in high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatic analyses have helped to reveal how the composition of the rumen microbiome varies significantly with changes in diet. These efforts are beginning to explain how shifts in the microbiome affect feed efficiency. Efforts must now be made to understand how this rumen microbial community interacts with the physiological function of the rumen and the host, ultimately influencing both the health and productivity of the animal.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

All authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES


  1. Anantasook, N., Wanapat, M., Cherdthong, A., Gunun, P. (2013). Changes of microbial population in the rumen of dairy steers as influenced by plant containing tannins and saponins and roughage to concentrate ratio. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences. 26(11): 1583.

  2. Behan, A.A., Loh, T.C., Fakurazi, S., Kaka, U., Kaka, A., Samsudin, A.A. (2019). Effects of supplementation of rumen protected fats on rumen ecology and digestibility of nutrients in sheep. Animals. 9(7): 400.

  3. Belanche, A., Kingston-Smith, A.H., Griffith, G.W., Newbold, C.J. (2019). A Multi-kingdom study reveals the plasticity of the rumen microbiota in response to a shift from non-grazing to grazing diets in sheep. Frontiers in Microbiology. 10: 122. 

  4. Bhatt, R.S., Sahoo, A., Shinde, A.K., Karim, S.A. (2013). Change in body condition and carcass characteristics of cull ewes fed diets supplemented with rumen bypass fat. Livstock Science. 157: 132-140.

  5. Burdick, M., Zhou, M., Guan, L.L., Oba, M. (2022). Effects of medium- chain fatty acid supplementation on performance and rumen fermentation of lactating Holstein dairy cows. Animals. 16(4): 100491.

  6. Carberry, C.A, Waters, S.M., Kenny, D.A., Creevey, C.J. (2014). Rumen methanogenic genotypes differ in abundance according to host residual feed intake phenotype and diet type. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 80(2): 586-94. 

  7. Cardo, L. (2015). Tackling acidosis the dangers of SARA, science and solutions. Rumin. 25: 1-15

  8. Chang, J., Peng, S., Yin, Y., Ciais, P., Havlik, P., Herrero, M. (2021). The key role of production efficiency changes in livestock methane emission mitigation. AGU Advances 2. e2021AV000391.

  9. Chanthakhoun, V., Wanapat, M., Berg, J. (2012). Level of crude protein in concentrate supplements influenced rumen characteristics, microbial protein synthesis and digestibility in swamp buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis). Livestock Science. 144: 197-204. 

  10. Choi, Y., Lee, S.J., Kim, H.S., Eom, J.S., Jo, S.U., Guan, L.L., Park, T., Seo, J., Lee, Y., Bae, D., Lee, S.S. (2022). Red seaweed extracts reduce methane production by altering rumen fermentation and microbial composition in vitro. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 9: 985824.

  11. Cristani, M., Arrigo,M.D.,  Mandalari, G., Castelli, F., Sarpietro, M.G., Micieli, D.,   Venuti, V.,Bisignano, G., Saija, A., Trombetta, D. (2007). Interaction of four monoterpenes contained in essential oils with model membranes: Implications for their antibacterial activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 55: 6300-6308.

  12. Cui, Y., Liu, H., Gao, Z., Xu, J., Liu, B., Guo, M., Yang, X., Niu, J., Zhu, X., Ma, S., Li, D. (2022). Whole-plant corn silage improves rumen fermentation and growth performance of beef cattle by altering rumen microbiota. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 106(11): 4187-4198.

  13. Dias, J., Marcondes, M.I, de Souza, S.M, Silva, B., Noronha, M.F., Resende, R.T. (2018). Bacterial community dynamics across the gastrointestinal tracts of dairy calves during preweaning development. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 84(9): 02675-717.

  14. Dias, J., Marcondes, M.I., Noronha, M.F., Resende, R.T., Machado, F.S., Mantovani, H.C., Dill-McFarland, K.A., Suen, G. (2017). Effect of Pre-Weaning Diet on the Ruminal Archaeal, Bacterial and Fungal Communities of Dairy Calves. Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 1553.

  15. Enjalbert, F., Combes, S., Zened, A., Meynadier, A. (2017). Rumen microbiota and dietary fat: A mutual shaping. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 123: 782-797.

  16. Fagundes, G.M., Benetel, G., Carriero, M.M., Sousa, R.L., Muir, J.P., Macedo, R.O., Bueno, I.C. (2020). Tannin-rich forage as a methane mitigation strategy for cattle and the implications for rumen microbiota. Animal Production Science. 61(1): 26-37.

  17. Faniyi, T.O., Adegbeye, M.J, Elghandour, M., Pilego, A.B., Salem, A., Olaniyi, T.A. (2019). Role of diverse fermentative factors towards microbial community shift in ruminants. Journal of Applied Microbiology. 127(1): 2-11.

  18. FAO (2019). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations statistical databases. Rome. http://faostat.fao.org/.

  19. FAO (2023). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/08801ab7-en.

  20. Fernando, S.C., Purvis, H.T., Najar, F.z., Sukharnikov, L.O., Krehbiel, C.R., Nagaraja, T.G., Roe, B.A., Desilva, U. (2010). Rumen microbial population dynamics during adaptation to a high-grain diet. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 76(22): 7482-7490. 

  21. Fievez, V., Boeckaert, C., Vlaeminck, B., Mestdagh, J., Demeyer, D. (2007). In vitro examination of dha-edible micro-algae: 2. Effect on rumen methane production and apparent degradability of hay. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 136: 80-95. 

  22. Flachowsky, G., Gruen, M., Meyer, U. (2013). Feed-efficient ruminant production: opportunities and Journal challenges. of Animal and Feed Sciences. 22(3): 177-187. 

  23. Flachowsky, G., Meyer, U., Südekum, K. (2017). Land use for edible protein of animal origin-A review. Animals 7: 25.  

  24. Gerber, P. J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., .Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., Falcucci, A., Tempio, G. (2013). FAO. Tackling climate change through livestock: A global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3437e.pdf.

  25. Guo, C., Kong, F., Li, S., Wang, X., Sun, X., Du, W., Dai, D., Wang, S., Xie, B., Xu, X. (2023). Effect of alkaline mineral complex buffer supplementation on milk performance, serum variables, rumen fermentation and rumen microbiota of transition dairy cows. Fermentation. 9: 792. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9090792.

  26. Hao, Y., Guo, C., Gong, Y., Sun, X., Wang, W., Wang, Y., Yang, H., Cao, Z., Li, S. (2021). Rumen fermentation, digestive enzyme activity and bacteria composition between pre- weaning and post-weaning dairy calves. Animals. 11(9): 2527.

  27. Henderson, G., Cox, F., Ganesh, S., Jonker, A., Young, W., Janssen, P.H. (2015). Rumen microbial community composition varies with diet and host, but a core microbiome is found across a wide geographical range. Scientific Reports. 5(1): 14567.

  28. Hristov, A.N., Oh, J., Firkins, J. L., Dijkstra, J., Kebreab, E., Waghorn. (2013). Special topics-Mitigation of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from animal operations: I. a review of enteric methane mitigation options. Journal of Animal Science. 91: 5045-5069. 

  29. Hristov, A., Ivan, M., Rode, L., McAllister, T. (2001). Fermentation characteristics and ruminal ciliate protozoal populations in cattle fed medium- or high-concentrate barley-based diets. Journal of Animal Science. 79: 515-524.

  30. Hua, C., Tian, J., Tian, P., Cong, R., Luo, Y., Geng, Y., Tao, S., Ni, Y. and Zhao, R., (2017). Feeding a high concentration diet induces unhealthy alterations in the composition and metabolism of ruminal microbiota and host response in a goat model. Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 138.

  31. Hungate, R.E. (1966). The Rumen and Its Microbes. Academic Press, New York, USA.

  32. Huws, S.A., Creevey, C.J., Oyama, L.B., Mizrahi, I., Denman, S.E., Popova, M., Muñoz-Tamayo, R., Forano, E., Waters, S.M., Hess, M., Tapio, I. (2018). Addressing global ruminant agricultural challenges through understanding the rumen microbiome: Past, present and future. Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 2161.

  33. Huws, S.A., Kim, E.J., Cameron, S.J.S., Girdwood, S.E., Davies, L., Tweed, J. (2014).  Characterization of the rumen lipidome and microbiome of steers fed a diet supplemented with flax and echium oil. Microbial Biotechnology. 8: 331-341.

  34. Ibrahim, N.A., Alimon, A.R., Yaakub, H., Samsudin, A.A., Candyrine, S.C.L., Wan Mohamed, W.N., Md Noh, A., Fuat, M.A., Mookiah, S. (2021). Effects of vegetable oil supplementation on rumen fermentation and microbial population in ruminant: A review. Tropical Animal Health and Production. 53: 1-11.

  35. IPCC (2006). IPCC Guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. The National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme, IGES, Japan.

  36. Ishaq, S.L., Lachman, M.M., Wenner, B.A., Baeza, A., Butler, M., Gates, E., Olivo, S., Geddes, J.B., Hatfield, P., Yeoman, C.J. (2019b). Pelleted-hay alfalfa feed increases sheep wether weight gain and rumen bacterial richness over loose-hay alfalfa feed. PLoS One. 14(6): e0215797. 

  37. Ishaq, S.L., Page, C.M., Yeoman, C.J., Murphy, T.W., Van Emon, M.L., Stewart, W.C. (2019a). Zinc AA supplementation alters yearling ram rumen bacterial communities but zinc sulfate supplementation does not. Journal of Animal Science. 97(2): 687-697.

  38. Jahani-Azizabadi, H., Baraz, H., Bagheri, N., Ghaffari, M.H. (2022). Effects of a mixture of phytobiotic-rich herbal extracts on growth performance, blood metabolites, rumen fermentation and bacterial population of dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science. 105(6): 5062-5073.

  39. Kandathil, Ashwin and Bandla, Srinivas. (2019). Optimized oral supplementation of vitamins improves feed intake and rumen microbial protein synthesis in Deoni cows. Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Sciences. 43: 197-205.

  40. Khorrami, B., Vakili, A.R., Danesh-Mesgaran, M., Klevenhusen. F. (2015). Thyme and cinnamon essential oils: Potential alternatives for monensin as a rumen modifier in beef production systems. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 200: 8-16. 

  41. Khovidhunkit, W., Memon, R.A., Feingold, K.R., Grunfeld, C. (2000). Infection and inflammation-induced proatherogenic changes of lipoproteins The Journal of Infectious disease. 181 (s3): S462-S472.

  42. Kim R.N., Akira O., Natsuki O., Shiro K., Toshihiro I., Shigeru S. (2018). Veterinary Research. 14: 310 

  43. Koike, S., Kobayashi, Y. (2001). Development and use of competitive PCR assays for the rumen cellulolytic bacteria: Fibrobacter succinogenes, Ruminococcus albus and Ruminococcus flavefaciens. FEMS Microbiology Letters. 204: 361-366. 

  44. Kong, F., Gao, Y., Tang, M., Fu, T., Diao, Q., Bi, Y., Tu, Y., (2020). Effects of dietary rumen-protected Lys levels on rumen fermentation and bacterial community composition in Holstein heifers. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 104: 6623-6634.

  45. Krause, D.O., Nagaraja, T.G., Wright, A.D.G., Callaway, T.R. (2013). Rumen microbiology: Leading the way in microbial ecology. Journal of Animal Science. 91: 331-341.

  46. Kumar, S., Indugu, N., Vecchiarelli, B., Pitta, D.W. (2015).  Associative patterns among anaerobic fungi, methanogenic archaea and bacterial communities in response to changes in diet and age in the rumen of dairy cows. Frontiers in microbiology. 6: 781.

  47. Li, F. and Guan, L.L. (2017).  Metatranscriptomic profiling reveals linkages between the active rumen microbiome and feed efficiency in beef cattle. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 83(9): e00061-17. 

  48. Li, F., Wang, Z., Dong, C., Li, F., Wang, W., Yuan, Z., Mo, F., Weng, X. (2017). Rumen bacteria communities and performances of fattening lambs with a lower or greater subacute ruminal acidosis risk. Frontiers in Microbiology. 8: 2506. 

  49. Li, J.H, Yousif, M.H., Li, Z.Q., Wu, Z.H., Li, S.L., Yang, H.J. (2019). Effects of antibiotic residues in milk on growth, ruminal fermentation and microbial community of preweaning dairy calves. Journal of Dairy Science. 102(3): 2298-307.

  50. Li, Y.Q., Xi, Y.M., Wang, Z.D., Zeng, H.F., Han, Z., (2020). Combined signature of rumen microbiome and metabolome in dairy cows with different feed intake levels. Journal of Animal Science. 98(3): p.skaa070.  

  51. Lima, F.S., Oikonomou, G., Lima, S.F., Bicalho, M.L.S., Ganda, E.K., de Oliveira, F.J.C. (2015). Prepartum and postpartum rumen fluid microbiomes: characterization and correlation with production traits in dairy cows. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 81: 1327-1337.

  52. Liu, Y.J., Wang, C., Liu, Q., Guo, G., Huo, W.J., Zhang, Y.L., Pei, C.X., Zhang, S.L., Zhang, J. (2019). Effects of sodium selenite addition on ruminal fermentation, microflora and urinary excretion of purine derivatives in Holstein dairy bulls. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 103: 1719-1726. 

  53. Malmuthuge, N., Guan, L.L. (2017). Understanding host-microbial interactions in rumen: searching the best opportunity for microbiota manipulation. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology. 8: 1-7. 

  54. Mannelli, F., Daghio, M., Alves, S.P., Bessa, R.J., Minieri, S., Giovannetti, L., Conte, G., Mele, M., Messini, A., Rapaccini, S., Viti, C. (2019). Effects of chestnut tannin extract, vescalagin and gallic acid on the dimethyl acetals profile and microbial community composition in rumen liquor: An in vitro study. Microorganisms. 7(7): 202.

  55. Mao, S., Zhang, R., Wang, D. and Zhu, W. (2012). The diversity of the fecal bacterial community and its relationship with the concentration of volatile fatty acids in the feces during subacute rumen acidosis in dairy cows. BMC Veterinary Research. 237. 

  56. McCann, J.C., Luan, S., Cardoso, F.C., Derakhshani, H., Khafipour, E., Loor, J.J. (2016). Induction of subacute ruminal acidosis affects the ruminal microbiome and epithelium. Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 701. 

  57. Mihalikova, K., Gresakova, L., Boldizarova, K., Faix, S., Leng, L., Kisidayova, S. (2005). The effects of organic selenium supplementation on the rumen ciliate population in sheep. Folia Microbiologica. 50: 353-356.

  58. Newbold, C.J., Ramos-Morales, E. (2020). Ruminal microbiome and microbial metabolome: effects of diet and ruminant host. Animals. 14(s1): 8-s86.

  59. O’Hara, E., Kenny, D.A., McGovern, E., Byrne, C.J., McCabe, M.S., Guan, L.L., Waters, S.M. (2020). Investigating temporal microbial dynamics in the rumen of beef calves raised on two farms during early life. FEMS Microbiology Ecology. 96(2): p.fiz203.

  60. Patra, A.K.,Yu, Z. (2014). Effects of vanillin, quillaja saponin and essential oils on in vitro fermentation and protein-degrading microorganisms of the rumen. Applied microbiology and biotechnology. 98: 897-905.

  61. Pitta, D.W., Kumar, S., Vecchiarelli, B., Shirley, D.J., Bittinger, K., Baker, L.D., Ferguson, J.D., Thomsen, N. (2014b). Temporal dynamics in the ruminal microbiome of dairy cows during the transition period. Journal of Animal Science. 92: 4014- 4022. 

  62. Pitta, D.W., Kumar, S., Veiccharelli, B., Parmar, N., Reddy, B., Joshi, C.G. (2014a).  Bacterial diversity associated with feeding dry forage at different dietary concentrations in the rumen contents of mehshana buffalo (bubalus bubalis) using 16s pyrotags. Anaerobe. 25: 31-41.

  63. Pitta, D., Melgar, A., Hristov, A.N., Indugu, N., Narayan, K.S., Pappalardo, C., Hennessy, M.L., Vecchiarelli, B., Kaplan- Shabtai, V., Kindermann, M., Walker, N. (2021). Temporal changes in total and metabolically active ruminal methanogens in dairy cows supplemented with 3- nitrooxypropanol. Journal of Dairy Science. 104: 8721- 8735. 

  64. Qu, X., Raza, S.H.A., Zhao, Y., Deng, J., Ma, J., Wang, J., Alkhorayef, N., Alkhalil, S.S., Pant, S.D., Lei, H., Zan, L. (2023). Effect of tea saponins on rumen microbiota and rumen function in qinchuan beef cattle. Microorganisms. 11(2): 374.

  65. Seshadri, R., Leahy, S., Attwood, G. (2018). Cultivation and sequencing of rumen microbiome members from the Hungate1000 Collection. Nature Biotechnology. 36: 359- 367. 

  66. Shen, J., Zheng, L., Chen, X., Han, X., Cao, Y., Yao, J. (2020). Metagenomic Analyses of Microbial and Carbohydrate- Active Enzymes in the Rumen of Dairy Goats Fed Different Rumen Degradable Starch. Frontiers in microbiology. 11:  1003. 

  67. Srinivasan, G., Chinnamani, V., Chellapandian, M., Leela, V. and Sathiamoorthy, T. (2023). Rumen methanogens diversity in native cattle under different feeding regimen using 16s metagenomic techniques. Indian Journal of Animal Research. 58(5): 797-806. doi: 10.18805/IJAR.B-5109.

  68. Stanton, C., Leahy, S., Kelly, B., Ross, R.P., Attwood, G., (2019). Manipulating the rumen microbiome to address challenges facing Australasian dairy farming. Animal Production Science. 60(1): 36-45.

  69. Trabi, E.B., Seddik, H.E., Xie, F., Lin, L., Mao, S. (2019). Comparison of the rumen bacterial community, rumen fermentation and growth performance of fattening lambs fed low-grain, pelleted or non-pelleted high grain total mixed ration. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 253: 1-12.

  70. Ungerfeld, E.M., Beauchemin, K.A., Muñoz, C. (2022). Current perspectives on achieving pronounced enteric methane mitigation from ruminant production. Frontiers in Animal Science. 2: 795200.

  71. Volden, H. (1999). Effects of level of feeding and ruminally undegraded protein on ruminal bacterial protein synthesis, escape of dietary protein, intestinal amino acid profile and performance of dairy cows. Journal of Animal Science. 77(7): 1905-1918. 

  72. Wang, B., Ma, M.P., Diao, Q.Y., Tu, Y. (2019b). Saponin-induced shifts in the rumen microbiome and metabolome of young cattle. Frontiers in Microbiology. 10: 356.

  73. Wang, B.H., Yang, L., Luo, Y.L., Wang, Y., Yuan, Q., Wang, D.B. (2018).  Effect of feeding pattern on intestinal flora and fatty acid metabolism in sunit sheep. Food Science. 39:1-7. 

  74. Wang, D., Chen, L., Tang, G., Yu, J., Chen, J., Li, Z., Cao, Y., Lei, X., Deng, L., Wu, S., Guan, L.L. (2023). Multi-omics revealed the long-term effect of ruminal keystone bacteria and the microbial metabolome on lactation performance in adult dairy goats. Microbiome. 11(1): 215.

  75. Wang, H., Wu, F., Guan, T., Zhu, Y., Yu, Z., Zhang, D., Zhang, S., Su, H., Cao, B. (2020). Chopping roughage length improved rumen development of weaned calves as revealed by rumen fermentation and bacterial community. Animals. 10(11): 2149.

  76. Wang, L., Zhang, G., Xu, H.., Xin, H., Zhang, Y. (2019a). Metagenomic analyses of microbial and carbohydrate-active enzymes in the rumen of holstein cows fed different forage-to- concentrate ratios. Frontiers in microbiology. 10: 649. 

  77. Wang, C., Liu, Q., Guo, G., Huo, W.J., Liang, Y., Pei, C.X., Zhang, S.L., Yang, W.Z., Wang, H. (2017).  Effects of different dietary protein levels and rumen-protected folic acid on ruminal fermentation, degradability, bacterial populations and urinary excretion of purine derivatives in beef steers. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 155: 1477-1486. 

  78. Weimer, P.J. (2015). Redundancy, resilience and host specificity of the ruminal microbiota: implications for engineering improved ruminal fermentations. Frontiers in Microbiology. 6: 296.  

  79. Williams, A.G. and Coleman, G.S. (1992). The rumen protozoa. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, USA. Wu, H.M., Zhang, J., Wang, C., Liu, Q., Guo, G., Huo, W.J., Chen, L., Zhang, Y.L., Pei, C.X., Zhang, S.L. (2021). Effects of riboflavin supplementation on performance, nutrient digestion, rumen microbiota composition and activities of Holstein bulls. British Journal of Nutrition. 126(9): 1288-1295.

  80. Xue, M.Y., Xie, Y.Y., Zhong, Y., Ma, X.J., Sun, H.Z., Liu, J.X. (2022). Integrated meta-omics reveals new ruminal microbial features associated with feed efficiency in dairy cattle.  Microbiome. 10(1): 32.

  81. Yang, S.L., Bu, D.P., Wang, J.Q., Hu, Z.Y., Li, D., Wei, H.Y. (2009). Soybean oil and linseed oil supplementation affect profiles of ruminal microorganisms in dairy cows. Animals. 3: 156- 1569. 

  82. Zhang, C.M., Guo, Y.Q., Yuan, Z.P., Wu, Y.M., Wang, J.K., Liu, J.X., Zhu, W.Y. (2008). Effect of octadeca carbon fatty acids on microbial fermentation, methanogenesis and microbial flora in vitro. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 146(3-4): 259-269.

  83. Zhang, G.W., Wang, C., Du, H.S., Wu, Z.Z., Liu, Q., Guo, G., Huo, W.J., Zhang, J., Zhang, Y.L., Pei, C.X. (2020b). Effects of folic acid and sodium selenite on growth performance, nutrient digestion, ruminal fermentation and urinary excretion of purine derivatives in Holstein dairy calves.  Livestock Science. 231: 103884.

  84. Zhang, R., Liu, J., Jiang, L., Mao, S. (2020a). Effect of high-concentrate diets on microbial composition, function and the VFAs formation process in the rumen of dairy cows. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 269: 114619.

  85. Zhang, R.Y., Jin, W., Feng, P.F., Liu, J.H. and Mao, S.Y., (2018). High-grain diet feeding altered the composition and functions of the rumen bacterial community and caused the damage to the laminar tissues of goats. Animal. 12: 2511-2520.

  86. Zhang, Z.D.,Wang, C., Du, H.S., Liu, Q., Guo, G., Huo, W.J., Zhang, J., Zhang, Y.L., Pei, C.X., Zhang, S.L. (2020c).  Effects of sodium selenite and coated sodium selenite on lactation performance, total tract nutrient digestion and rumen fermentation in Holstein dairy cows. Animals. 14: 2091-2099. 

  87. Zhao, Z.W., Ma, Z.Y., Wang, H.C., Zhang, C.F. (2022). Effects of trace minerals supply from rumen sustained release boluses on milk yields and components, rumen fermentation and the rumen bacteria in lactating yaks (Bos grunniens). Animal Feed Science and Technology. 283: 115184.

  88.  Zhou, Z., Fang, L., Meng, Q., Li, S., Chai, S., Liu, S., Schonewille, J.T. (2017). Assessment of ruminal bacterial and archaeal community structure in yak (Bos grunniens). Frontiers in microbiology. 8: 179.

  89. Zhu, Z., Noel, S.J., Difford, G.f., Al- Soud, W.A.,  Brejnrod, A.,  Sorensen, S.J., Lassen, J., Lovendahl, P., Hojberg, O. (2017). Community structure of the metabolically active rumen bacterial and archaeal communities of dairy cows over the transition period. PLoS One. 12: e0187858.
Reviewed By

Download Article
In this Article
    Contact us
    Follow us

    Editorial Board

    View all (0)