Foxtail millet (
Setaria italica), a drought-resistant cereal crop, has garnered significant attention due to its exceptional nutritional profile and health-promoting properties
(Harish et al., 2024). As a staple food in many Asian and African countries, it is rich in carbohydrates (60-70%), proteins (10-12%) and dietary fiber (6-8%), making it a valuable source of sustained energy (
Kalsi and Bhasin, 2023). Unlike major cereals such as wheat and rice, foxtail millet has a low glycemic index (GI ≈ 50), which is beneficial for managing diabetes and metabolic disorders
(Usman et al., 2022; Sahana and Vijayalaxmi, 2024). Additionally, it contains essential amino acids, including leucine, isoleucine and methionine, though lysine remains a limiting factor
(Sivakumar et al., 2022; Mazzola et al., 2024). Its gluten-free nature further enhances its suitability for celiac patients, positioning it as a functional food in modern diets
(Sudha et al., 2022).
Beyond macronutrients, foxtail millet is a reservoir of bioactive compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids and lignans, which contribute to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties
(Sasi et al., 2023). Studies indicate that ferulic acid,
p-coumaric acid and quercetin derivatives are predominant phenolics, with total phenolic content ranging from 120-250 mg GAE/100 g
(Bento et al., 2017). These compounds exhibit free radical scavenging activity, reducing oxidative stress markers
in vitro and
in vivo (Frond et al., 2019). Furthermore, foxtail millet contains phytosterols (b-sitosterol and campesterol) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which are associated with cholesterol-lowering and neuroprotective effects, respectively
(Kumari et al., 2025). The synergistic action of these phytochemicals justifies its potential in preventing chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disorders and cancer
(Adetuyi et al., 2025).
Foxtail millet is an excellent source of essential micronutrients, particularly iron (2.8-5.5 mg/100 g), zinc (1.7-3.5 mg/100 g) and calcium (20-45 mg/100 g), crucial for addressing micronutrient deficiencies in developing regions
(Ingle et al., 2023). However, the presence of antinutritional factors such as phytic acid (0.4-1.2%) can impair mineral bioavailability. Recent processing techniques like fermentation, germination and decortication have been shown to reduce phytic acid by 30-60%, enhancing iron and zinc absorption
(Bandyopadhyay et al., 2017). Additionally, foxtail millet contains B-complex vitamins, notably niacin (1.5-3.0 mg/100 g) and folate (25-45 µg/100 g), supporting metabolic and neurological functions
(Gao et al., 2024). These attributes highlight its role in combating hidden hunger and improving public health outcomes
(Adetuyi et al., 2025).
Despite its nutritional richness and traditional uses, there is limited systematic exploration of its mechanisms of action, bioavailability and clinical efficacy in managing chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disorders and inflammation
(Sasi et al., 2023). This review addresses a critical research gap by consolidating scattered studies on foxtail millet’s bioactive compounds, pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential, which have not been comprehensively analyzed in existing literature. This review is significant as it synthesizes current knowledge, highlights understudied bioactive components and identifies future research directions to validate its health benefits.
Phytochemical composition of foxtail millet
Recent advancements in analytical techniques, including HPLC-MS, GC-MS and NMR spectroscopy, have enabled precise quantification of foxtail millet’s nutraceutical components (
Pujari and Hoskeri, 2022). Metabolomic studies reveal dynamic changes in its phytochemical profile under varying agronomic conditions, suggesting opportunities for biofortification (
Suma and Urooj, 2012). Furthermore, genomic and proteomic approaches are identifying key genes responsible for nutrient synthesis, paving the way for genetically enhanced varieties (
Sharma and Niranjan, 2018). As global interest shifts toward sustainable and nutrient-dense crops, foxtail millet stands out as a promising candidate for functional food development, warranting further research into its nutraceutical applications and health benefits
(Kuruburu et al., 2022).
Macronutrient profile
Foxtail millet is a nutritionally dense grain with a balanced macronutrient composition
(Bandyopadhyay et al., 2017). It is primarily composed of slow-digesting starches, which contribute to a low glycemic index (GI), making it beneficial for glycemic control and diabetes management
(Kola et al., 2020). The high fiber content further aids in prolonged satiety and improved digestive health (
Arya and Bisht, 2022). It contains approximately 60-70% carbohydrates, predominantly in the form of complex starches and dietary fiber, which contribute to its low glycemic index (GI) and slow digestion, making it beneficial for blood sugar management
(Abedin et al., 2022). The grain also provides 10-12% protein, containing essential amino acids such as lysine (3.2-4.6 g/100 g), methionine (1.7-2.3 g/100 g) and leucine (7.4-9.8 g/100 g), which are often limited in other cereals
(Arora et al., 2023). This makes foxtail millet a valuable protein source, particularly in plant-based diets. Foxtail millet contains essential amino acids, including lysine, methionine and leucine, which are often limited in other cereal grains
(Xing et al., 2023). This makes it a valuable protein source, particularly in vegetarian diets. The lipid content in foxtail millet is relatively low but includes a favorable ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids, which may support cardiovascular health
(Madhavilatha et al., 2022; Ingle et al., 2023) Additionally, foxtail millet has a relatively low fat content (2-4%), with a favorable fatty acid profile, including a balanced ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids
(Nadeem et al., 2020). The lipid fraction consists of unsaturated fats, primarily linoleic acid (omega-6) and α-linolenic acid (omega-3), which support cardiovascular health
(Bandyopadhyay et al., 2017; Umamaheswari et al., 2021). The high fiber content (6-12%) further enhances its nutritional benefits by promoting digestive health
(Abedin et al., 2022).
Micronutrient profile
Foxtail millet is a nutritionally dense grain, particularly rich in B-complex vitamins and essential minerals. It contains significant amounts of thiamine (B1) (0.59 mg/100 g), riboflavin (B2) (0.11 mg/100 g), niacin (B3) (3.2 mg/100 g) and pyridoxine (B6) (0.38 mg/100 g), which are crucial for energy metabolism and neurological function
(Bandyopadhyay et al., 2017). Additionally, foxtail millet provides vitamin E (0.5 mg/100 g), an antioxidant that supports skin health and immune function. These vitamins contribute to the grain’s potential in combating micronutrient deficiencies, particularly in regions where it is a dietary staple
(Xing et al., 2023). The mineral profile of foxtail millet is equally impressive, with high levels of iron (6.3 mg/100 g), calcium (31 mg/100 g), magnesium (81 mg/100 g), phosphorus (290 mg/100 g) and zinc (2.4 mg/100 g)
(Abedin et al., 2022).
Bioactive compounds
Foxtail millet is a rich source of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols, flavonoids and tannins, which contribute to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties
(Kuruburu et al., 2022). Studies indicate that foxtail millet contains approximately 98.5 mg/100 g of total polyphenols, with flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol present in significant amounts (
Hutabarat and Bowie, 2022). These compounds help to neutralize free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, which are linked to chronic diseases like diabetes and cancer
(Dey et al., 2022). Additionally, tannins (about 0.3-0.6% of dry weight) in foxtail millet exhibit antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects, further enhancing its functional food potential (
Sharma and Sharma, 2022). The presence of these bioactive molecules makes foxtail millet a promising dietary component for disease prevention
(Mikulajova et al., 2017). Moreover, foxtail millet contains lignans (
e.g., secoisolariciresinol) and saponins, which offer cardioprotective and immunomodulatory benefits
(Wang et al., 2023). Lignans, present at 0.5-2.0 mg/ 100 g, have been associated with reduced risk of cardio-vascular diseases due to their cholesterol-lowering and anti-atherogenic effects (
Chethan Kumar et al., 2022). Saponins, found in concentrations of 0.1-0.3%, enhance immune function by modulating cytokine production and exhibit hypocholesterolemic activity
(Sharma et al., 2015).
Phytopharmacological properties
Antioxidant activity
Foxtail millet exhibits significant antioxidant activity, primarily attributed to its high phenolic and flavonoid content
(Sharma et al., 2015). Studies have shown that foxtail millet contains total phenolic content ranging from 168.2 to 328.5 mg GAE/100 g and total flavonoid content between 25.4 and 58.6 mg QE/100 g, depending on the variety and processing methods (
Suma and Urooj, 2012). These bioactive compounds contribute to its free radical scavenging ability, as demonstrated by its high DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical inhibition (IC50 values of 1.2-2.8 mg/mL) and ABTS (2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) radical scavenging activity (IC50 values of 0.9-2.1 mg/mL)
(Sharma et al., 2015). The presence of phenolic acids such as ferulic,
p-coumaric and syringic acids further enhances its antioxidant potential, making it effective in neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS)
(Zhang et al., 2017). Research indicates that regular consumption of foxtail millet can reduce lipid peroxidation measured by malondialdehyde (MDA) levels by 20-35% in animal models
(Sharma et al., 2018). Additionally, its flavonoids,
i.e., apigenin and luteolin, modulate antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), improving cellular defense
(Xu et al., 2025).
Antidiabetic and glycemic control
Foxtail millet has demonstrated significant potential in managing diabetes and improving glycemic control due to its slow carbohydrate digestion
(Xu et al., 2025). The grain’s high dietary fiber content (6.7-8.0%) and resistant starch (1.2-2.5%) contribute to a low glycemic index (GI ≈ 50-58), which helps in gradual glucose release and prevents postprandial blood sugar spikes
(Makwana et al., 2025). A study found that foxtail millet-based diets significantly reduced fasting blood glucose levels (by ~15-20%) in diabetic rats compared to control groups, highlighting its role in stabilizing blood sugar levels
(Goel et al., 2025). Additionally, its polyphenols and flavonoids (
e.g., quercetin and ferulic acid) inhibit carbohydrate- digesting enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase
(Candra et al., 2025). Foxtail mill
et also enhances insulin sensitivity through its bioactive compounds, such as magnesium (~130 mg/100 g) and phytochemicals like vitexin and orientin
(Khan et al., 2025). Research reported that foxtail millet consumption improved insulin sensitivity (HOMA-IR reduction by ~18%) in type 2 diabetic patients, attributed to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties
(Xu et al., 2025).
Cardioprotective effects
Foxtail millet has demonstrated significant cardioprotective effects, primarily by reducing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and promoting overall heart health
(Goel et al., 2025). A study found that the soluble dietary fiber and polyphenols in foxtail millet effectively lower LDL cholesterol levels by inhibiting cholesterol absorption in the gut and enhancing its excretion
(Candra et al., 2025). Additionally, the grain’s high fiber content aids in improving lipid metabolism, reducing the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease
(Makwana et al., 2025). The presence of essential fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, further contributes to its cholesterol-lowering properties, making foxtail millet a valuable dietary component for cardiovascular disease prevention
(Zhang et al., 2017). Magnesium acts as a natural calcium channel blocker, promoting vasodilation and reducing vascular resistance, which helps maintain healthy blood pressure levels
(Sharma et al., 2015). The fiber content also aids in managing hypertension by improving endothelial function and reducing oxidative stress. A study highlighted that regular consumption of foxtail millet significantly decreased systolic and diastolic blood pressure in hypertensive individuals
(Abedin et al., 2022).
Gut health and prebiotic potential
Foxtail millet exhibits notable benefits for gut health due to its high dietary fiber content, which acts as a prebiotic to support beneficial gut microbiota
(Li et al., 2025). A study found that the insoluble fiber in foxtail millet (approximately 8-12% of its composition) enhances microbial diversity in the colon, promoting the growth of
Bifidobacteria and
Lactobacillus species
(Chakraborty et al., 2025). These microbes play a crucial role in maintaining intestinal barrier function and reducing inflammation, thereby improving digestive health
(Manju et al., 2025). Additionally, the fermentation of foxtail millet’s fiber produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as acetate, propionate and butyrate, which provide energy to colonocytes and help prevent gut-related disorders like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and colorectal cancer
(Sandhya et al., 2025). Another key component of foxtail millet is resistant starch (RS), which accounts for about 3-5% of its total starch content. Resistant starch resists digestion in the small intestine and undergoes fermentation in the colon, where it enhances gut motility and promotes the production of beneficial metabolites
(Rayasam et al., 2025). Research demonstrated that foxtail millet’s resistant starch significantly increases fecal bulk and reduces intestinal transit time, alle
viating constipation (
Vila-Real et al., 2025).
Analytical techniques in foxtail millet research
Foxtail millet research employs various analytical techniques to study its nutritional, genetic and agronomic traits
(Wang et al., 2025). Proximate composition analysis, including protein, fat, fiber and carbohydrate quantification, is conducted using methods like Kjeldahl, Soxhlet extraction and Van Soest procedures
(Khan et al., 2025). Molecular techniques such as SSR markers, SNP genotyping and next-generation sequencing (NGS) facilitate genetic diversity and breeding studies
(Wang et al., 2025). Advanced tools like high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) are used for phytochemical profiling, while Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) aid in rapid quality assessment
(Yue et al., 2025).
Chromatographic techniques
Chromatographic techniques have been effectively utilized to analyze the bioactive compounds in foxtail millet
(Khan et al., 2025). HPLC is widely employed for polyphenol profiling due to its high resolution and sensitivity
(Wang et al., 2025). Additionally, GC-MS is used for analyzing lipids and volatile compounds, providing insights into the fatty acid composition and aroma profiles of foxtail millet
(Yue et al., 2025). GC-MS is particularly valuable for detecting volatile organic compounds and lipid derivatives, contributing to the assessment of its culinary and storage properties
(Rayasam et al., 2025). HPLC-based polyphenol profiling helps in evaluating its antioxidant potential, while GC-MS facilitates the characterization of lipid metabolism and flavor components
(Manju et al., 2025). These techniques collectively support the valorization of foxtail millet as a functional food
(Yue et al., 2025). Moreover, Table 1 summarizes the case studies on chromatographic techniques applied in foxtail millet.
Spectroscopic methods
Foxtail millet is a nutritionally rich cereal grain known for its high phenolic and flavonoid content, which contribute to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and health-promoting properties
(Manju et al., 2025). Spectroscopic techniques such as UV-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy are widely used for the quantification and characterization of these bioactive compounds
(Yue et al., 2025). These methods provide rapid, non-destructive and accurate analysis of foxtail millet’s phytochemical composition, aiding in food quality assessment and nutraceutical development
(Manju et al., 2025). UV-Vis spectroscopy is a fundamental analytical technique used to quantify phenolic and flavonoid content in foxtail millet
(Goel et al., 2025). Phenolic compounds exhibit strong absorption in the 280-320 nm range due to aromatic π→π transitions, while flavonoids show characteristic peaks at 360-380 nm due to conjugated systems
(Goel et al., 2025). The Folin-ciocalteu (FC) assay is commonly used for total phenolic content (TPC) determination, whereas the aluminum chloride (AlClƒ) colorimetric method is applied for flavonoid quantification
(Wang et al., 2025). However, Table 2 summarizes the case studies on UV-Vis Spectroscopy for foxtail millet analysis. Moreover, FTIR spectroscopy is used to identify functional groups in foxtail millet, such as O-H (3300 cm
-1, phenolics), C=O (1740 cm
-1, esters) and C=C (1600 cm
-1, aromatic rings)
(Wang et al., 2025). This technique helps in understanding structural changes due to processing and interactions between biomolecules
(Makwana et al., 2025). Table 3 summarizes the case studies on FTIR Spectroscopy for foxtail millet analysis.
Omics technologies
Recent advances in omics technologies have enabled comprehensive biochemical profiling of foxtail millet
(Zhang et al., 2025). Metabolomic studies using LC-MS and GC-MS have identified key bioactive compounds in foxtail millet, including phenolic acids, flavonoids and GABA, with germination and fermentation shown to significantly enhance these metabolites
(Ingle et al., 2023). Proteomic analyses through 2D-Gel electrophoresis and LC-MS/MS have characterized numerous storage and stress-responsive proteins that influence nutritional quality and abiotic stress resistance
(Muruganantham et al., 2025). Nutrigenomic investigations have revealed how millet-derived compounds interact with human metabolism, demonstrating anti-diabetic effects through modulation of PPAR-γ and GLUT4 gene expression, anti-inflammatory activity
via NF-κB pathway inhibition and gut microbiome modulation by increasing beneficial bacteria like
Bifidobacterium and
Lactobacillus (
Zhang et al., 2025). Clinical and animal studies have further shown that foxtail millet consumption can positively regulate lipid metabolism genes and reduce obesity-related gene expression
(Meena et al., 2024).
Moreover, the following studies highlights advancements in milletomics, focusing on integrated omics approaches to understand genetic progression and nutritional improvement in millets, particularly foxtail millet
Zhang et al., (2025);
Mazumder et al., (2024) employed metabolomics-centered multi-omics to identify stress-responsive proteins and metabolic pathways in foxtail millet cultivars, revealing key molecular mechanisms under stress conditions.
Meena et al., (2024) emphasized omics-aided crop improvement, noting limited but growing proteomics applications in foxtail millet, while
Sasi et al., (2023) explored nutraceutical potential through metabolomic and genomic insights.
Shingote et al., (2023) reviewed omics tools like proteomics and metabolomics for millet nutritional enhancement and
Rahim et al., (2023) advocated pan-omics integration for underutilized cereals.
Rajendrakumar, (2022) identified gaps in proteomic and metabolomic studies in small millets under climate change, while
Kumar et al., (2021) discussed genomics-assisted quality improvement.
Singh et al., (2022) highlighted abiotic stress tolerance in finger millet using omics and
Yadav et al., (2023) and
Joshi et al., (2021) justified nutrigenomics’ role in leveraging high-throughput omics for cereal biofortification and nutritional studies. Collectively, these studies demonstrate the potential of integrated omics genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics to enhance millet resilience, nutritional value and climate adaptability
(Zhang et al., 2025).
Challenges and future directions
Foxtail millet is a nutrient-rich cereal with potential nutraceutical benefits, but optimizing its extraction and bioavailability poses significant challenges
(Zhang et al., 2025). The grain’s hard seed coat and complex starch-protein matrix hinder efficient nutrient extraction, requiring advanced processing techniques such as enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, or milling to enhance bioaccessibility
(Sachdev et al., 2021). Additionally, the bioavailability of key bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols and dietary fibers, is limited by their binding with antinutritional factors like phytic acid, necessitating strategies like germination or thermal processing to mitigate these effects
(GuanQing et al., 2022). Future research should focus on refining extraction methods to preserve heat-sensitive nutrients while improving solubility and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract
(Zhang et al., 2025). The nutraceutical applications of foxtail millet are promising, yet further studies are needed to validate its health benefits, including anti-diabetic, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, through well-designed clinical trials
(Ingle et al., 2023). Another key direction is the development of fortified foxtail millet-based products, leveraging nanoencapsulation or fermentation to enhance stability and targeted delivery of bioactive compounds
(Sapara, et al., 2024). Collaborative efforts between food scientists, nutritionists and industry stakeholders are essential to scale up production while maintaining cost-effectiveness and consumer acceptance (
Zhang et al., 2025). Addressing these challenges will position foxtail millet as a sustainable, functional food in global markets
(Zhang et al., 2025).
