Agriculture is a cornerstone of India’s economy, contributing over 15% to the nation’s gross domestic product (GDP)
(Singh et al., 2020). With a diverse range of crops cultivated across its varied climatic zones, India stands as one of the world’s largest agricultural producers. However, this sector faces numerous challenges, including climate change, soil degradation and resource scarcity
(Tankiwala et al., 2022). Among these issues, stubble burning has emerged as a critical concern, particularly in Northern India, where it has become a widespread practice following the harvest of major crops such as rice and wheat (
Dube, 2022). Due to various socio-economic, institutional, technological and commercial obstacles, farmers are often forced to burn crop residue, resulting in numerous ecological issues (
Udakwar and Sarode, 2023).
In India, cereal crop residues account for about two-thirds of the total 683 million tons (MT) produced annually, with surplus generation from various crops shown in Fig 1
(Jain et al., 2018). A significant portion of these residues is used as fodder and fuel for domestic and industrial purposes. However, there remains a surplus of 178 million tons that goes unutilized (
MoA and FW, 2019). Of this surplus, 87 million tons are incinerated, with Punjab alone contributing 9 million tons of burned paddy residue. The contributions from other major states are illustrated in Fig 2
(Jain et al., 2018). This practice is deeply rooted in the agricultural culture of Northern India, shaped by the Green Revolution of the 1960s. While this initiative successfully increased food production, it also led to a large amount of agricultural waste, with stubble burning emerging as the easiest and cheapest method for residue management (
Dube, 2022).
Stubble burning has several short-term benefits, such as quick field clearing for the next season, but it causes long-term damage to soil health. The ash produced degrades soil fertility, reduces moisture retention and disrupts the nutrient cycle, ultimately impacting agricultural productivity. The environmental consequences are also severe, as burning releases harmful pollutants like particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), carbon monoxide and greenhouse gases, which deteriorate air quality and pose serious health risks, including respiratory diseases
(Gupta et al., 2004). Additionally, the practice contributes to climate change by exacerbating global warming, creating a feedback loop where worsening climate conditions push farmers to continue burning. Addressing stubble burning requires a comprehensive approach that integrates technological interventions and considers socio-economic factors influencing farmers’ decisions. Innovations such as mechanical straw management systems and bio-decomposers offer promising alternatives, but their adoption remains limited due to financial constraints and lack of awareness (
Dube, 2022;
Dutta et al., 2022).
This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of stubble burning in Northern India by exploring the factors contributing to this practice, assessing the techno-economic feasibility and impact of alternative technologies for crop residue burning management and identifying the constraints and strategies necessary for effective implementation. By synthesizing existing research and empirical data, this study seeks to contribute valuable insights that can inform future policy decisions and promote sustainable agricultural practices. Addressing stubble burning is not only crucial for improving air quality and public health but also for ensuring the long-term viability of agriculture in Northern India. Through informed action and collaborative efforts, it is possible to foster a transition toward sustainable practices that benefit both farmers and the environment.
Factors contributing to stubble burning by farmers in northern india
Crop residue should not be considered waste; rather, it represents a valuable resource that is often converted into ash due to various interconnected factors. Key reasons for this practice include a shortage of labour during critical field operations, a limited time frame for preparing the land for subsequent crops, insufficient processing facilities and the widespread use of combine harvesters for paddy harvesting. In addition to these primary factors, several minor issues further exacerbate the situation. The following sections will discuss the significant reasons behind the prevalence of stubble burning.
Shortage of labour
In the current intensive agricultural system, sustaining farming operations with manual labor or animal power has become increasingly challenging. As a result, there has been a steady shift toward mechanization, with tractors and power tillers playing a dominant role in field operations
(Lohan et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2013). Manual harvesting, though effective in removing most stubble for repurposing as livestock feed or thatching material, is still practiced in specific regions. For instance, basmati rice is often harvested manually to reduce grain breakage, as it is prone to lodging and preferred for fodder due to its lower silica content compared to hybrid varieties
(Erenstein, 2011). However, in Haryana’s Sirsa and Fatehabad districts, large landholdings and labour shortages have led to mechanical harvesting using combine harvesters, followed by stubble burning (
MoA and FW, 2019). Punjab districts such as Sangrur, Bhatinda, Firozpur, Muktsar and Mansa have also witnessed significant stubble burning. Annually, about 11.3 million tons of crop residue is burned, with Haryana and Punjab contributing 16.9% and 49.47%, respectively (
MoA and FW, 2019). Labor shortages are further exacerbated by employment guarantee schemes like MGNREGA, which provide secure rural employment, discouraging agricultural work. The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) has also reported a declining trend in the agricultural workforce in recent years
(Bhattacharyya et al., 2021).
Farm mechanisation and adoption of combine harvester
Since the post-green revolution era, Punjab and Haryana have witnessed a significant rise in farm mechanization, coinciding with a growing labour shortage. This shift is primarily driven by the need to harvest hybrid rice cultivars before they lodge, as they are highly susceptible to shattering losses and the cost-effectiveness of mechanized operations. Traditional paddy harvesting requires approximately 150-200 man-hours per hectare, making it economically unviable for many farmers
(Lohan et al., 2015; Lohan et al., 2018). As a result, combine harvesters have become the preferred solution. These fully automated machines integrate harvesting and threshing, significantly reducing labour dependency. However, they also pose a challenge for stubble management, as they leave behind 20-30 cm of crop residue, complicating land preparation for the next crop. In Punjab, the number of self-propelled combine harvesters surged to nearly 8,000 by the 2018-19 agricultural season
(Grover et al., 2017). This rise in mechanization has led to large quantities of residue up to 9 tons per hectare being left in fields
(Mittal et al., 2009). With limited alternatives, many farmers resort to burning stubble to clear their fields quickly for the next cropping season.
Narrow window for land preparation of subsequent crops
Farmers have a narrow window to sow wheat typically 7-10 days after harvesting basmati rice and 15-20 days after high-yielding rice varieties
(Sahai et al., 2011; Prem et al., 2024). Previously, the long-duration rice varieties did not align well with the rice-wheat cropping system, compelling farmers to choose between growing either wheat or rice. However, advancements in temperature-insensitive, non-photoperiod sensitive varieties now enable the cultivation of both crops around 130-140 days for rice and 120-130 days for wheat. To achieve this, farmers must clear rice straw before wheat sowing in late November to early December
(Kumar et al., 2015), increasing reliance on stubble burning. While combine harvesters allow timely paddy harvesting, they also create major challenges. They leave behind 20-30 cm of stubble, which is difficult to remove and loose residues amounting to 7.5-9 tons per hectare, complicating collection and disposal
(Jain et al., 2014). With limited time and alternatives, many farmers resort to burning as the most practical solution for residue management.
Limited acceptance as animal feed
Paddy straw is rarely used as livestock feed in Northwestern India due to its high silica content (around 8% dry matter) and poor nutritional profile, including low minerals, protein and high lignocellulose
(Singh et al., 1996; Prasanthkumar and Kannan, 2018). While nutritionally similar to wheat straw, farmers prefer wheat straw for feeding. In some areas, rice straw is mixed with green fodder or used for grazing. Beyond its low nutritional value, several factors limit its acceptance: (1) the risk of ‘Degnala’ disease, (2) difficulties in chaff preparation and mixing, (3) low palatability due to small pubescence, requiring livestock adaptation and (4) high oxalate content
(Singh et al., 1996). These challenges contribute to its limited use as fodder.
Control of pests and weeds
Burning is often seen as an easy way to control pests, but it remains controversial. While it can temporarily reduce pathogen loads, it also harms beneficial soil microbes
(Pathak et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2013). Many farmers hold the belief that burning can enhance soil productivity by decreasing both weed and pathogen populations
(Lohan et al., 2018). The resulting ash may briefly enhance phosphorus and potassium levels and neutralize soil pH. However, burning significantly depletes soil organic carbon (SOC), vital for soil health and fertility
(Jat et al., 2009). Despite short-term benefits, its long-term impact on soil quality must be carefully weighed.
Storage challenges and commercial utilization
The bulky and fluffy nature of rice residue makes storage challenging, requiring substantial space
(Sidhu et al., 2015). According to
Kadam et al., (2000), Storing baled straw from 8,000 hectares demands nearly 80 hectares, about 1% of the cultivated area. Storage must be waterproof and wind-protected, as loose bales scatter easily. Rodent infestations further discourage storage, leading many farmers to burn the residue. Additionally, rice straw’s hygroscopic nature, especially during monsoon, promotes mold and fungal growth, harming livestock health
(Goswami et al., 2020). Historically, brick kilns were among the largest consumers of rice straw; however, since 2019, the implementation of regulations by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) regarding the use of fly ash in brick manufacturing has resulted in a substantial decline in straw consumption
(Bhattacharyya et al., 2021).
Reduced tractive force and energy savings
Burning paddy straw eliminates leftover material from the field, thereby simplifying the subsequent sowing process for tractors. This practice not only aids farmers in preparing an optimal seedbed for wheat but also contributes to fuel savings (
Kaur and Rani, 2016;
Lohan et al., 2015). Singh et al., (2018) found that less than 1% of farmers engaged in conservation agriculture (CA) incorporate residue due to the higher costs associated with this method. Consequently, many farmers prefer burning straw to quickly clear the field for timely sowing operations.
Impact and techno-economic feasibility of stubble burning management technologies
Stubble burning is a prevalent agricultural practice that poses significant environmental and health risks, contributing to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. As the demand for sustainable farming intensifies, it becomes essential to explore alternative stubble management technologies that not only mitigate these impacts but also enhance agricultural productivity. This paper examined the impact of various stubble burning management technologies, focusing on their techno-economic feasibility, as mentioned in Table 1. By assessing both the ecological benefits and the economic viability of these alternatives, we aim to provide insights that can guide policymakers and farmers towards more sustainable agricultural practices.
Constraints in adoption of stubble burning management technologies
Perceived benefits and risks
Farmers’ adoption of technologies like the Happy Seeder is influenced by perceived risks, such as increased rat populations and weed growth, which threaten wheat yields. Limited impact of extension services further hinders adoption. Providing multiple residue management options (e.g., balers, Happy Seeders) alongside stricter burning regulations can enhance uptake (
Gupta, 2012). However,
Kanokanjana and Garivait (2013) highlighted that farmers favour open burning due to perceived short-term benefits like pest control and soil texture improvement, despite its environmental harm. Addressing these perceptions through education and awareness is crucial for promoting sustainable residue management.
Economic barriers
Economic barriers hinder the adoption of sustainable technologies like the Turbo Happy Seeder Technique (THST). Despite subsidies, high initial costs and the need for manual labour for residue distribution discourage farmers
(Singh et al., 2021). With an operational window of just 25 days per year, THST use is restricted during key planting periods.
Kaur (2017) highlighted additional challenges like limited residue buyers and weak state support, pushing farmers toward stubble burning. Enhancing financial aid, market incentives and policy interventions is crucial to promoting sustainable residue management and reducing reliance on burning.
Operational challenges
The adoption of stubble management technologies poses operational challenges, especially for small and marginal farmers. High costs of Turbo Happy Seeders and tractor rentals create financial barriers
(Chaudhary et al., 2019). Farmers also face pest infestations, nutrient deficiencies and poor seed germination due to heavy straw loads, impacting yields. Additionally, inefficient straw management leads to machinery failures and planting delays. These challenges discourage investment in new technologies. Enhancing financial support, improving machinery efficiency and strengthening extension services is essential to promote widespread adoption of sustainable residue management practices.
Custom hiring and accessibility barriers
Jambagi et al., (2023) identified key barriers to Happy Seeder adoption, particularly in custom hiring. High rental costs and delayed subsidies create financial challenges, while limited availability during peak seasons restricts access. Resource allocation favours large farmers, leaving smallholders disadvantaged. Additionally, rental service viability is impacted by payment delays and machinery wear, discouraging providers. Unequal subsidy distribution between custom hiring centers and individual farmers further limits access. Addressing these issues through fair subsidy policies, timely payments and improved access to machinery is crucial to promoting wider adoption of Happy Seeders for sustainable residue management.
User perceptions of stubble management technologies like the PUSA decomposer revealed the significant barriers to adoption. Many farmers cited the need for extra irrigation and the 25-day waiting period for decomposition as key challenges, jeopardizing timely wheat sowing. Additionally, limited understanding and accessibility of the technology have contributed to poor or non-adoption. Many farmers reported feeling only partially satisfied with the technology, underscoring the importance of enhancing education and support to facilitate its broader acceptance. Addressing these multifaceted barriers is crucial for promoting sustainable agricultural practices and ensuring that farmers can effectively transition away from traditional methods of stubble burning.
Strategies for effective crop residue management
The widespread burning of rice residue poses a significant threat to both the environment and society. It is also irrational to waste this valuable resource, which has numerous industrial and domestic applications, from compost production to power generation. Baling is considered an effective method for managing rice straw; however, access to the necessary machinery is often limited. In the following section, the management strategies for rice residue are primarily categorized into two types: in-situ and ex-situ
(Dutta et al., 2022).
In-situ residue management
Rice residue is a valuable yet underutilized resource in agriculture. Modern rice cultivars have a harvest index of 0.4 to 0.5, meaning that for every ton of grain produced, nearly one ton of straw is generated. Residue management can be done through straw incorporation (allowing residue to decompose naturally in the field) or straw mulching (mixing residue into the soil during sowing)
(Kumar et al., 2015). Incorporating rice residue 10 to 20 days before planting enhances the growth and productivity of subsequent crops, such as wheat The benefits of retaining or incorporating rice residue in the field include.
One key advantage of rice residue retention is improved soil fertility, as decomposing residue releases nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, enriching soil nutrient content and enhancing microbial activity
(Gangwar et al., 2006). The addition of organic matter increases cation exchange capacity, improving nutrient retention and availability
(Chauhan et al., 2012). Another significant benefit is moisture conservation, as retained residue acts as mulch, reducing evaporation and improving water retention. This is particularly beneficial in water-scarce regions, where it enhances crop resilience against drought and reduces irrigation needs
(Lohan et al., 2018). Rice residue also plays a role in weed suppression, as the mulch layer inhibits light penetration, reducing weed germination and minimizing reliance on herbicides
(Kumar et al., 2019). This helps crops grow with less competition for resources, improving yields. Soil erosion prevention is another advantage, as organic cover protects soil from wind and water erosion. By preventing topsoil loss, residue management contributes to long-term soil fertility and agricultural sustainability.
Additionally, rice residue incorporation improves soil structure, enhancing aggregation, aeration and drainage
(Dutta et al., 2022). A well-structured soil supports deeper root penetration, allowing plants to access nutrients and moisture more efficiently, ultimately leading to better plant stability and higher crop yields.
Ex-situ residue management
Ex-situ management of crop residues involves handling and utilizing residues outside the field environment, focusing on their potential for various applications. This approach not only mitigates the issues associated with open burning but also promotes sustainable agricultural practices. Key strategies include.
Composting
Composting involves the collection of crop residues, which are then decomposed through aerobic microbial activity to produce compost. This process not only recycles essential nutrients back into the soil but also enhances soil fertility and structure. The organic matter in compost improves soil texture, increases moisture retention and promotes beneficial microbial activity
(Jusoh et al., 2013; Qiu et al., 2012). Moreover, composting helps mitigate the release of greenhouse gases associated with open burning, making it an environmentally friendly alternative (
IRRI, 2019).
Bioenergy production
The conversion of rice straw and other agricultural residues into bioenergy through methods such as gasification and anaerobic digestion represents a sustainable energy solution
(Ngan et al., 2020). Gasification transforms organic materials into syngas, which can be used to generate electricity or produce biofuels. Anaerobic digestion, on the other hand, converts organic matter into biogas, which can be utilized for heating or electricity generation
(Hiloidhari et al., 2014; Rao et al., 2010). Both processes contribute to reducing dependence on fossil fuels, enhancing energy security and lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
Animal feed
Pre-treatment of rice straw enhances its nutritional profile, making it more suitable as livestock feed. Common methods include soaking, chemical treatment, or ensiling, which can improve digestibility and nutrient availability
(Aquino et al., 2020). When mixed with higher-quality feed components, treated rice straw can significantly boost livestock productivity, leading to improved meat and milk yields. This approach not only provides an effective means of utilizing agricultural waste but also supports livestock farmers in enhancing their production efficiency.
Mushroom cultivation
Rice straw serves as an excellent substrate for mushroom farming, providing a dual benefit of waste management and economic opportunity. By utilizing agricultural residues for mushroom cultivation, farmers can generate additional income while simultaneously reducing waste
(Kumar et al., 2015). The cultivation of mushrooms on rice straw also promotes sustainable practices, as it utilizes otherwise discarded material, thus contributing to rural employment and food security.
Industrial uses
Crop residues can be transformed into raw materials for various industries. For example, rice straw can be processed into pulp for paper production or converted into biodegradable packaging materials
(Dutta et al., 2022; Kumar and Singh, 2020). Such industrial applications not only help in waste management but also create value-added products that support a circular economy. Utilizing agricultural residues in this manner reduces the environmental footprint associated with traditional raw material extraction.
Straw baling and storage
Baling rice straw is a practical strategy for managing residue volume, facilitating easier transportation and storage. This method reduces the immediate availability of straw for burning on-site, thus mitigating air pollution. Baled straw can be utilized later for various applications, including animal bedding, composting, or as a raw material for bioenergy production (
Kumar and Singh, 2020). By organizing straw in a manageable form, farmers can maximize its utility while minimizing waste.
Erosion control and soil improvement
The incorporation of crop residues into constructed wetlands or using them as soil amendments serves to enhance soil quality and prevent erosion. Residues provide organic matter that improves soil structure and increases water retention, thereby supporting plant growth. In non-agricultural settings, using residues for erosion control helps stabilize soil, reduces runoff and promotes biodiversity
(Bhattacharyya et al., 2021). This practice aligns with sustainable land management principles, contributing to ecosystem health.
