Profile of the respondents
It was found that majority of the households (73.00%) were male-headed, nearly half of the total respondents (48.10%) were primary educated and slightly more than half of the respondents (51.30%) were male. The average age was 41 years with mean farming experience of 20 years. The average family size was 5. Farming was the major occupation. The mean annual income was 18, 500 ETB (Ethiopian Birr).
The CSA practices followed by the farmers are explored and categorized under: conservation agriculture, integrated nutrient and soil management, irrigation system, crop diversification, physical soil and water conservation and agro-forestry.
Conservation agriculture
Conservation agriculture increases carbon sink in soil, helps to conserve soil and water, reduces nitrogen loss and thereby contributes to increased yield and more income (
CIAT, 2015). Application of organic matter improves the availability of micronutrients to crops and is cost effective and environment friendly
(Koireng et al., 2018). Among the practices in conservation agriculture (Table 1), ‘crop rotation’ and ‘using the crop residue to improve soil fertility’ were practiced by 56.00 and 38.00 per cent of the farmers respectively, followed by intercropping, mulching and minimum tillage. Crop residues: act as a protective cover, improves infiltration and reduce splash erosion
(Jirata et al., 2016). Visalakshi and Sireesha (2015) studied the comparative economics of sowing methods and reported that the net income was more with a B:C ratio of 2.5 with zero tillage sowing. But, in the study area minimum tillage was practiced by only a few (10.50%) because farmers are practising repeated ploughing for generations to get rid of weeds thereby reducing the cost of herbicides. In the study area, the maize was intercropped with beans.
Integrated nutrient and soil management
‘Compost and green manure application’, ‘Application of bio fertilizers’ and ‘Application of lime for lime soil management’ were practiced by 21.80, 20.50 and 5.10 per cent of the respondents respectively (Table 1), Though application of lime is an established sustainable practice to ameliorate acidic soils (
Holland et al., 2018) the adoption was very low. Most of the farmers did not test the soil because of poor awareness and cost associated with soil testing.
Irrigation system
The irrigation sources available were shallow well, ponds, check damsand small streams, both private and community-owned, which helped the farmers to grow diverse crops like maize and vegetables.
Crop diversification
Slightly more than half of the respondents (55.00%) practiced crop diversification followed by ‘use of improved seeds’ (46.20%). High-yielding varieties were grown by 46.20 per cent of the respondents followed by short-duration and pest resistant varieties (Table 1). Crop diversification helps in reducing uncertainties and improves soil fertility (
Lin, 2011). In the study area, farmers cultivated hybrid maize that increased production.
Soil and water conservation
Physical soil and water conservation practices were followed by 66.70 per cent of the respondents (Table 1). In the study area, deep trenching (Fig 2), stone bunding (Fig 3) and bund stabilization by planting different types of grasses such as Bana grass (Hybrid:
Pennisetum purpureum ×
americanum), Elephant grass (
Pennisetum purpureum), Desho grass (
Pennisetum pedicellatum) and vetiver grass were practiced by the farmers. Stone bunds are stable and durable that can limit the runoff and soil erosion in steeply sloping areas and excess water can pass more easily through stone terraces
(Teshome et al., 2014). Terracing was found to be an effective method according to the FGD farmers. Since it requires cooperative action among the farmers, the farmers were working in the community land by contributing free labor for 20 to 30 days a year. The long term terrace cultivation in acid soils positively affects the nutrients availability and lime requirements of the soil
(Ram et al., 2015).
Agroforestry
Agroforestry was practiced by 62.80 per cent of the farmers in the study area (Fig 4 and 5). The commonly grown trees are
Grevillea robusta, Lucern,
Acacia decurrens and
Acacia albida. Growing trees help the farmers in soil fertility management, improves micro-climate (if grown as intercrop) and help to improve carbon in the terrestrial ecosystem
(Rocheleau et al., 1988).
Challenges in the adoption of CSA practices
Inadequate integration of conservation agriculture
The FGD members mentioned that conservation agriculture practiced in the study area has been promoted mainly by NGOs. CSA is not adequately amalgamated into the existing agricultural advisory system of the district agricultural office.
Problem with Crop residue management and mulching
It was revealed during FGD that soil mulching and livestock feeding faced stiff competition. Even though incorporation of crop residues increases yield and grain quality
(Almaz et al., 2017) crop residues are allowed for grazing by livestock.
High input price
Inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides are expensive. Lack of money was the biggest challenge as the prices are beyond the reach of smallholder farmers. Seeds and implements such as ripper and direct seeder were not available. This result confirms the finding of
Agbahey et al., (2015). Many practiced the traditional way of mixing ash with water and sprinkling on the plants. Crop residues are burnt for this purpose, rather than using it as mulch.
Erratic rainfall
Irregular rainfall pattern was reported by almost all the farmers. The unpredictability of the weather was a major challenge.
Problems with using natural fertilizer
It was revealed through FGDs that the challenge in using manure is in the collection due to lack of systematic dung collection as the animals were led loose. The agricultural experts mentioned that training farmers to prepare compost from plant waste was recently started. The focal person of Sustainable Land Management Program (SLM) mentioned that the program was designed to focus on agroecological practices, including the use of natural fertilizers.
Lack of applying lime for acid soil management
It is vital to provide the crop nutrition in an integrated manner to maintain the overall balance, flow of nutrients, better productivity, ecological health, economics and sustainability
(Prabhu et al., 2018). The farmers mentioned that none tested the acidity of soil as it is expensive. Even if, they get low production they assume farmland as unproductive. Lack of awareness in identifying the problem of the soil, inadequate knowledge on soil testing and applying lime to reduce acidity and the high cost were the main challenges.
Lack of knowledge
The FGD members revealed that the major challenges were the lack of information about the availability and dissemination of knowledge about CSA. As reported by
Farooq et al., (2011), lack of information on the benefits of CSA components can hinder adoption.
Shortages of credit facilities
Lack of availability of credit service is an important challenge influencing the adoption of agricultural technologies, especially for farmers with limited financial resources for purchasing agricultural inputs and implements. Similar finding was reported by
Daba et al., (2018) that the cost of inorganic fertilizers is getting expensive in Ethiopia. Hence, farmers could not afford to buy and use for crop production.
Land fragmentation
The FGD members mentioned that land fragmentation is a big problem. The land is traditionally split up into smaller entities among the siblings upon inheritance, which leads to a decline in farm size. There is a connection between higher population density and smaller farm sizes
(Josephson et al., 2014).
Opportunities of CSA
Institutional advisory services
Key informants revealed that most farmers had confidence in the advice given by the agricultural development agents and trusted because they viewed it as government-approved. Extension service is one of the strongest determinants of CSA adoption
(Arslan et al., 2014) because they are an important channel to spread knowledge and information among farmers (
Ketema and Bauer, 2011).
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
NGOs like Integrated Soil Fertility Management (ISFM), Digital Green (DG), Crop Life Ethiopia are actively involved in conservation agriculture and integrated soil fertility programs in the study area.
Integrated soil fertility management
The main goal of ISFM is to increase agricultural productivity through capacity building on CSA related activities. According to key informants, ISFM has several projects in the study area such as vermicompost, compost, crop rotation, green manure and lime application to reduce the acidity of the soil and demonstrated these technologies in the FTCs. The above projects were implemented in the Ambo district on four watersheds each comprised of 50 farmers practicing on their farmlands. The ISFM supported the farmers by distributing fertilizers and improved seeds in the study area.
Digital green (DG)
DG is a global development organization working in the Ambo district. One of the DAs reported that DG builds the capacity of front-line workers which facilitated them to build the capacity of farmers using digital tools. DG facilitated the production and dissemination of relevant videos, enabling farmers to share knowledge with one another. It was revealed by the key informants that the support offered by DG through the digital tool Pico (handheld projector) was useful.
Crop life Ethiopia
Crop life Ethiopia trains farmers on integrated pest and weed management through cultural, biological and chemical measures.
Programs and policy-related services
Agricultural growth program (AGP) coordination units
AGP project aims to increase agricultural productivity and enhance market access in the study area through capacity building, providing inputs and demonstrating CSA practices in the training center.
Sustainable land management (SLM)
A government-sponsored SLM program implemented through the district agricultural office, gave training on integrated soil fertility management, water and soil conservation through terracing to prevent soil erosion and agroforestry to regenerate fertility and ecosystems. Key informants revealed that in SLM program II, CSA is adequately incorporated and includes practices that seek to increase agricultural productivity by strengthening farmer’s resilience to climate change, reduce GHG emissions and increase carbon sequestration. SLM program II is providing skill training to DAs, farmers and other stakeholders. SLM program contributes to agroforestry (Fig 6 and 7) and water and soil conservation activities (Fig 8 and 9) especially by supplying seeds of indigenous trees and grasses.
