With a projected spike in food demand from 59 to102 per cent affordably meeting food and nutritional security is a great challenge. Biased technological development by focusing on few plant species, the Indian food security has become dependent only on fewcrops (Kulczynski et al., 2019). The appropriate counter measure is “greater nutrient source per unit of resource input” by usage of potential crops. Potential crops/underutilized crops/ orphan crops/ neglected crops are the life support species, with promising nutritional utility for the present as well as future needs of human kind, but these crops receive low priority from farming community (Prathyusha et al., 2019).
       
Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) is an annual herb and one amongst the potential crops whose cultivation was suppressed and remained unknown for subsequent centuries. It belongs to lamiaceae family and plays a key role in preventing several long-term diseases and so it is considered as “functional food”. It has wider scope in Indian market, as it is the raw material for many industries like nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical because of its functional component (Patel et al., 2021). In recent years, cultivation of this crop was started in Karnataka due to its easy cultivation under scarce availability of resources and remunerative price with good buy back arrangements. Conventional farming methods deteriorate the health of soil and lower the productivity, quality and also causes environmental pollution. The farming systems like organic farming is sustainable, economically viable and ecologically sounds (Toor et al., 2021). Nutrients are very important in enhancing the yield potential of crop. Both bulky and concentrated manures are sources of essential plant nutrients in organic farming for sustained crop yield by supplying the plant nutrients in easily available form through decomposition. As the crop is newly introduced in India, there is necessity to develop package of practices, with this objective the current study was conducted on organic cultivation of Chia.

The current research trail was conducted during two Rabi seasons 2020-21 and 2021-22 at Research Institute on Organic Farming (RIOF), University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Gandhi Krishi Vignan Kendra (GKVK), Bangalore. The soil of the trial site was red sandy loam with slightly acidity (pH 6.0), electric conductivity (0.40 dS m^-1) and organic carbon (0.77 per cent). Seed bed was prepared by ploughing twice and after obtaining fine tilth the lay out was made based on factorial randomized complete block design with three replications, two factors and 15 treatment combinations. The two factors i.e.,  Factor A - Five different spacing [60 cm x 30 cm (S₁), 75 cm x 15 cm (S₂), 75 cm x 30 cm (S₃), 90 cm x 15 cm (S₄) and 90 cm x 30 cm (S₅)] and Factor B- three nutrient levels applied based on nitrogen equivalent [60 kg N equivalent ha^-1(N₁), 80 kg N equivalent ha^-1(N₂) and 100 kg N equivalent ha^-1 (N₃)] applied based on nitrogen (N) equivalent. Farm yard Manure (FYM) @10 t ha^-1 was applied 15 days priorly to sowing for all the treatments. Sowing the Chia crop (Local variety) was done with allocation of spacing as per the treatment in each plot. Nutrients were applied after analyzing the concentration of nutrients present in FYM and Vermicompost (VC). 75 per cent of N is supplied through FYM as basal and 25 per cent of N was supplemented through top dressing of VC at 30 DAS. In net plot crop was harvested, threshed and weighed separately after obtaining the maturity and yield was computed in hectare basis.
       
Nondestructive method of sampling was made from five selected and tagged plants. The total number of primary branches plant^-1 were counted at 30 DAS, whereas both primary and secondary branches were recorded at 60 DAS and at harvest and their average value was considered. Partitioning of the dry matter of five tagged plants at harvest were uprooted then stem, leaves and spike were separated and oven dried at 60°C. Dry weight of each part plant^-1 was recorded and expressed as g plant^-1. Soil chemical parameters were obtained by drawing of representative soil samples at depth of 0-15 cm before sowing of crop and after harvest. The pH value was estimated using pH meter as per Jackson, (1973). The electrical conductivity measured with conductivity bridge and expressed as dS m^-1 as per Jackson (1973). The organic carbon  of soil was determined as per Jackson (1973). The data collected was statistically analysied by adopting Fishers method of analysis of variance (ANOVA) as outlined by Gomez and Gomez, (1984). Critical difference values were calculated whenever the F-test was significant at 5 per cent level. Economics was calculated with the prevailing costs during the experimentation period. The cost of components such as land preparation, cost incurred on inputs and labour charges at prevailing market price during crop production years of 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 were considered for calculation of cost of cultivation. The other components like Gross returns and Net returns (₹ ha^-1)  and B:C ratio were calculated by using the following formulas.
 

Gross returns (₹ ha^-1) = Market price (₹ kg^-1) x Seed yield (kg ha^-1)

 

Net returns (₹ ha^-1) = Gross returns (₹ ha^-1) - Cost of cultivation ( ha^-1)

Growth attributes
 
The data related to growth attributes of Chia (Table 1) shows that significantly higher number of branches plant^-1 at 30, 60 DAS and at harvest (6.45, 21.15 and 28.11, respectively) was recorded with S5 which was on par with S₃ and the lesser number of branches plant^-1 was reported with S₁.  N₃ recorded significantly higher branches plant^-1 at 30, 60 DAS and at harvest (6.32, 20.70 and 27.15, respectively) and was on par with N₂, lesser number of branches chia plant^-1 was reported with N₁. The interaction effect was found  to be non-significant. Mounika et al., (2021) in basil crop reported that more number of primary and secondary branches plant^-1 were in wider row spacing than compared narrow spacing which might be because of more availability of resources from the atmosphere, soil rhizosphere and optimum space to grow horizontally in wide spacing. In Occimum basilicum significantly more yield attributes were reported with wider spacing and application of higher dose of FYM by Policepatil  et al. (2020). Higher growth and yield attributes of tomato were observed with combination of FYM and vermicompost, FYM @ 20 t ha^-1 + vermicompost @ 10 t ha^-1 than application of FYM @ 10 t ha^-1 + vermicompost @ 5 t ha^-1 and control reported  by Bairagya et al., (2022) and Shiny et al., (2022). Manures like vermicompost might have releasenitrogen into soil nutrient pooland causes improvement of growth parameters of chia.


       
Spacing S5recorded significantly more dry matter partitioning to leaves, stem and spike (22.53 g, 71.52 g and 76.83 g) which was on par with S₃ and the lower with S₁. N₃ significantly partitioned higher dry matter to chia leaves,stem and spike (21.97 g, 69.93 g and 69.53 g) which was on par with N₂ and the lower with N1.Partitioning of dry matter to leaves was not significantly differed due to the interaction of factors at harvest. The results are in close agreement with the findings of Umilsingh, (2020) in chia crop, it was  reported that wider spacing of 60 cm × 30 cm resulted in more growth attributes due to low competition for the available resources between the plant parts, more branching pattern and more inter and intra row spacing compared to closer spacing. Ramesh et al., (2017) reported that quinoa grown under wider spacing of 60 cm x 10 cm along with higher doses of FYM resulted in higher yield attributes than narrow spacings of 30 cm x 10 cm with low levels of FYM application. FYM and VC improves root proliferation and biomass resulting in higher uptake of nutrients from surrounding root zone and greater assimilation, production and partition of dry matter to all plant parts.
 
Soil chemical properties
 
The pooled data of two years onsoil chemical properties after harvest (Table 2) shows that spacing has not showed significant influence on soil chemical properties, however numerically higher soil pH, EC and OC was reported with S5 (6.27, 0.61 dS m^-1 and 0.81 per cent) and lower values was recorded with S₂. Nutrient levels had not significantly influence soil chemical parameters. Higher pH, EC and OC was recorded with N3 (6.23,0.55 dS m^-1 and 0.80 per cent) and lower pH was recorded with N₁.The results are in line with findings of Singh et al., (2021) and Islam et al., (2024) who reported that neither spacing nor application of organic manures had significant influence on soil chemical properties.


 
Economics
 
A new crop or a technology is accepted by the farming community based on the profits realized upon cost involved in production. Data pertaining to effect of spacing and organic nutrient levels on economics (Table 3) shows that more cost of cultivation (₹ 69,663 ha^-1) was recorded with S₂ N₃, whereas lesser cost of cultivation (₹ 51,724 ha^-1) was with S₅N₁. The higher gross and net returns (₹ 2,75,386, ₹ 2,06,118 ha^-1, respectively) and B: C ratio (3.98) was recorded with spacing of S₄N₃. The results are in close conformity with findings of Hebbal et al., (2018) who reported that 30 cm x 10 cm recorded higher cost of cultivation (₹ 33659), gross returns (₹ 110484) and net returns (₹ 76825) than wider spacing of 45 cm x 30 cm and 30 cm x 30 cm. Similarly, higher gross and net returns of ₹ 108242 and  ₹ 78326, respectively were recorded with application of higher dose of FYM 7.5 t ha^-1 than lower doses and was in line with findings of Ramamoorthy et al., (2021).

Growth attributes of chia differed significantly by the influenceof different crop geometries and nutrient levels. Wider spacing of 90 cm x 30 cm has significantly higher growth attributes and the on-par results were recorded with 75 cm x 30 cm spacing than other spacings. 100 kg N equivalent ha^-1 application recorded significantly growth attributes and wason par with 80 kg N equivalent ha^-1. Spacing has no significant influence on soil chemical properties. Lesser cost of cultivation (₹ 60,935 ha^-1) was recorded with 80 kg N equivalent ha^-1 but higher gross returns (₹ 2,75,386 ha^-1), net returns (₹ 2,06,118 ha^-1) and B: C ratio (3.98) was observed with 90 cm x 15 cm with 100 kg N equivalent ha^-1. So it can be conclude that wider spacing along with application 80 kg N equivalent ha^-1 can be suggested for profitable chia cultivation.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions in this article are manly those of the authors and do not represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy, completeness of the information and data provided. There is no acceptancy of any liability for  direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.

The authors declare that no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. There is no funding or sponsorship that influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.