Treatment of sick birds
The study found that most respondents in Non-TSP and TSP areas treat their sick birds themselves, with 43.33 and 41.67% respectively. Local expert treatment was the second most preferred method, followed by “No treatment” treatment for 10.00 and 16.67%, respectively. Only 4.17 and 3.33 per cent treated their sick birds by a veterinary doctor, possibly due to a lack of veterinary services and extension work in the study area. The majority of respondents used “Self” treatment for their sick birds. The study’s findings align with
Choudhary’s (2017) findings, which found that 40.00% of respondents treated their birds themselves, followed by paravets (27.0%), local experts (15.00%) and veterinary doctors (3.00%), while 7% of respondents in unorganized systems did not treat their birds. Similar findings were also reported by
Oladunni and Fatuase (2014);
Rahman (2017); (
Varadharajan and Gnanasekar, 2019) and
Goswami et al., (2022).
Vaccination of chicks
The survey reveals that only a small percentage of poultry owners in Non-TSP and TSP areas follow vaccination practices for chicks, while the majority (85.00%) and 92.50% of poultry farmers do not, primarily due to poor knowledge about vaccination schedules and the lack of veterinary facilities in their areas. The results are similar to the findings of
Nath et al., (2012) who reported that a small number (7.20%) of poultry farmers practiced vaccination of birds. Similar findings were also reported by
Francis et al., (2016) and
Sharma et al., (2018). On the contrary,
Sihag (2020) reported that most poultry farmers were following vaccination practices in chicks, which is not in line with the present findings.
Main cause of mortality
The study found that predator attacks were the primary cause of mortality in poultry birds in both Non-TSP and TSP areas, with 60.00 and 61.67% of respondents, respectively. Outbreak of disease was the second leading cause, followed by cold weather with 7.50 and 10.00 percent of respondents from both areas. The findings are to the observations of
Goswami et al., (2022) who reported that the major cause of mortality in the backyard system is the attack of predators (97.00%). Similar findings were also reported by
Islam et al. (2015),
Choudhary et al., (2018) and
Bharti and Sagar (2020).
Common diseases encountered at farm
The study found that “Coryza,” an acute respiratory disease of chickens, was the most common disease in poultry farms in both Non-TSP and TSP areas. Coccidiosis was the second most common disease, followed by diarrhea at 15.84 and 10.00 percent, respectively. The fourth most common disease was “Fowl pox,” a viral disease, with 6.66 and 3.33 percent reported in both areas. These findings highlight the importance of addressing respiratory and viral diseases in poultry farming. The findings supported the views expressed by
Goswami et al., (2022) who reported respiratory problems (23.00%),
fowl pox (12.00%),
coccidiosis (20.00%) and
IBD diseases (17.00%) in backyard systems. Similar findings were also reported by
Francis et al., (2016) and
Choudhary et al., (2018).
Deworming programme
The majority of poultry owners in both surveys did not follow the deworming program for their birds, with 79.16 and 90.83 per cent not following it. Only 15.00 and 6.67 percent used Ayurvedic medicine/herbal for deworming in Non-TSP and TSP areas and 5.84 and 2.50% used Allelopathic medicine, while no Homeopathic medicine was used. The study confirms previous reports by
Khandait et al., (2011), Rahman (2017) and
Pralhad et al., (2020) that most poultry owners do not practice deworming against internal parasites in poultry birds. However,
Mathialagan and Senthilkumar (2012) found that the majority of respondents (80.00%) are aware of drug selection for deworming practices, contradicting the findings of the present study.
Availability of veterinary facilities/poultry assistant
The study found that 94.16 and 96.67% of poultry farmers in both surveyed areas reported that veterinary facilities were not available for treatments and vaccinations. The study’s findings align with previous research, including
Sharma et al., (2018); Nath et al., (2012) and
Khandait et al., (2011), which found that a majority of respondents (85.83%) self-treated sick birds due to the absence of veterinary facilities.
Budharam et al., (2021c) reported that only 14.57 per cent of recipients had access to veterinary facilities, contradicting the findings of the present study.
Use antibiotics/growth promoters
Respondents from Non-TSP and TSP areas reported not using antibiotics or growth promoters for artificially or synthetically increasing poultry birds.
Samantaray et al., (2020) found that 25.0% of respondents were aware of antibiotic use in poultry birds before farmer training.
Ezeibe et al., (2014) reported that most poultry farmers use antibiotics or drugs at an early age, contradicting the findings of
Samantaray et al., (2020).
Disposal of dead birds
The majority of poultry farmers in Non-TSP and TSP areas dispose of dead birds through “Throwing in the open,” with 85.84 and 91.67%, respectively. However, 14.16 and 8.33 percent of respondents in Non-TSP and TSP areas practice “Burial” and no respondents reported “burning” as a disposal method.
Nath et al., (2012) found that the majority of respondents in a study area disposed of dead birds by throwing them in the open (69.00%), followed by 19.00% eaten and 12.00% buried methods. This contradicts
Siddiky et al., (2022) findings, which revealed that the majority (58.10%) of poultry farmers disposed of dead birds by buried methods.
Onyia et al., (2022) also reported that the majority (82.63 per cent) of the respondents sold their poultry wastes sell in the market contradicting the findings of the present study.
Use of lime/quick lime for disinfection of poultry shed
Table 1 reveals that 85% of poultry keepers in Non-TSP and TSP areas do not use lime/quick lime for poultry shed disinfection, while only 14.16 and 4.16 percent of respondents do so in these areas. The study aligns with previous research by
Dutta et al., (2013) and
Vineetha et al., (2021) that poultry owners in the study areas use traditional methods like ash and lime for controlling ectoparasites and floor disinfections. However,
Ezeibe et al., (2014) found that 45.0% of respondents use disinfectants in poultry sheds before entrepreneurship training, contradicting the current findings.
Reasons for culling
The study found that the majority of respondents in Non-TSP and TSP areas cull their poultry birds due to illness, with 50.83 and 53.33 per cent, respectively. Old age was reported by 32.50 and 35.83 per cent, while poor productivity was cited by 16.67 and 10.84 per cent in both areas. These findings highlight the need for improved health and productivity in poultry farming. The findings support the views expressed by
Weyuma et al., (2015) who reported that the majority of respondents (66.30%) cull their birds in the study area due to various reasons like sickness, poor productivity and old age of poultry birds. Similar findings were also reported by
Desalew et al., (2013). However,
Fekede and Tadesse (2021) reported that in the Western Oromia region, Ethiopia poor egg production was a major reason for the culling of poultry birds, which is not in line with the present findings.
Type of medicine used to control disease
The majority of respondents in Non-TSP and TSP areas used herbal/ethnoveterinary medicine for treating sick poultry birds (85.00%) and 79.16%, respectively. However, 10% and 16.67% did not use any medicine. Few respondents reported using allopathic medicine (5.00%) or herbal/ethnoveterinary medicine (4.17%) for treating poultry birds. No respondent was using “Homeopathic” medicine for the treatment of poultry birds in the survey area. The majority of respondents were using traditional knowledge for the treatment of their sick birds by preparing a medicine using different types of medicinal plants and herbs available in local conditions. The results of the present study conform with those of
Muhiye (2007) who reported that the majority of poultry owners (87.60%) use traditional remedies to treat their diseased birds, which are generally administered through drinking water, whereas few respondents (12.40%) use modern medicines.
Gogoi, (2022) reported that mostly respondents prefer home remedies to cure poultry disease rather than going to the veterinary hospitals because of the distance related issues.
Goswami et al., (2022) reported that the majority of farmers (55.00%) use allelopathic medicine to treat birds in the Varanasi district of Uttar Pradesh, which is not in line with the present study.
Percentage of mortality
The study reveals that most farmers reported 15-20% mortality of poultry birds in their farms in Non-TSP and TSP areas, with 55.00 and 50.00% respectively. In Non-TSP and TSP areas, 27.50 and 31.67% reported 10-15% mortality, while 10% reported less than 10%. In TSP areas, 10.83% reported >20% mortality, while 7.50% reported >20% and <10% mortality, respectively. The results of the present study conform with those of
Adedeji et al., (2014) who revealed that the majority of respondents (52.63%) reported mortality of “6-10%” in a year at a poultry farm.
Mishra et al., (2009) also revealed that the majority of poultry farmers reported higher overall mortality in chicks (27.56%) as compared to adults (14.62%) in the study area.
Seasonal regularly incidence of disease
The study found that the majority of respondents in Non-TSP and TSP areas reported the “Monsoon season” as the major seasonal incidence of disease in poultry birds, followed by the “Summer season” with 22.50 and 20.00 percent and the least infestation in the “Winter season” with 15.00 and 12.50 per cent. The findings support the views expressed by
Leta and Endalew (2010) who described revealed that the majority of poultry owners (80.00%) reported June-August month as the major seasonal incidence of disease followed by March-May (14.40%) and December- February (5.00%).
Sankhyan et al., (2013) also observed that the majority of respondents (51.90%) in Himachal Pradesh reported the monsoon season as a major seasonal incidence of disease in adult birds followed by the winter season (30.90%) and summer season (17.20%) in the study area. Similar findings were also reported by
Halima (2007) and
Adedeji et al., (2014).
