Cannabis sativa L., also known as hemp, is an important multipurpose crop widely used as a food source, in pharmaceuticals and utility fibers. It is a versatile crop that is increasingly gaining global attention for its potential to foster circular economies through sustainable development (Campiglia et al., 2020). The crop has proven to be a critical component in global efforts towards the development of sustainable and environmentally friendly products. In Zimbabwe, where agriculture remains a cornerstone of the economy, contributing approximately 15-20% of national GDP and employing over 60% of the labour force (Mudhumo et al., (2026), hemp cultivation plays a pivotal role contributing towards the National GDP. However, prior to its recent resurgence during the 20^th century, all uses of Cannabis. sativa strains were blanketly banned mainly because of their morphological similarities with marijuana biotypes, which contain a high tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations (Cherney and Small, 2016; Yang et al., 2020). Unlike marijuana, industrial hemp contains negligible concentrations of THC (<0.3%), which is below the maximum regulatory threshold, making it safe for wide range of industrial and commercial applications. Despite hemp being a niche crop, it is currently going through a revival (Promhuad et al., 2022) and its prospects are now aligning with three major global transitions namely sustainable agriculture, green economies and bio-based industries (Crini et al., 2020). Hemp benefits have gone beyond its traditional roles as a source of food, fiber and oil to an eco-friendly crop. The crop is now increasingly recognised as a climate smart, bioremediating and eco-friendly crop.  Globally, there is a drive towards the adoption of ecofriendly and bio-based materials and industrial hemp has emerged as a promising candidate. The increasing global interest in hemp production is driven not only by its wide range of applications but also by its potential to provide eco-friendly alternatives that reduce overreliance on conventional fossil-based products (Global Hemp Summit, 2020).
       
Traditionally, plastics were being manufactured from petroleum-based compounds such as benzene and propylene (Yao et al., 2022), which contributed immensely to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental pollution, thereby affecting wildlife, terrestrial ecosystem and aquatic systems. Biodegradable plastics have come on board as a suitable alternative to the petroleum-based products as some additives are incorporated during manufacturing process to accelerate degradation (Malabadi et al., 2023). Hemp-based plastic made from hemp fibers is one of the bioplastics gaining global attention. The plastic is reported to be more easily degradable and recyclable compared to conventional plastics.
       
The whole plant utilization approach, where every part of the hemp plant (from the roots and stem to the flower) can be used, resulting in waste minimisation and pollution reduction (Kaçar et al., 2025). This aspect perfectly aligns with the principles of the circular economy. The demand for fossil-based energy sources, which are detrimental to the environment, is increasing due to the ever-growing global population. However, this challenge can be mitigated by the development of efficient resource utilization and waste management strategies associated with hemp production (Kirchherr et al., 2017). Unlike the traditional linear economy model characterised by a “take, make, dispose” approach, the circular economy advocates for minimal waste generation and maximum resource utilization. It emphasizes the principle of “reduce, reuse and recycle”, targeting the continuous cycling of material within production systems (Suzanne et al., 2020). Accordingly, hemp production is synonymous with popularising circular economies, which are regarded more sustainable in the context of finite natural resources (Anywar et al., 2022).
 
Historical context and revival of industrial hemp
 
Hemp is considered one of the oldest crops in the world (Teirumnieka et al., 2023). Archaeological and historical evidence indicates that hemp cultivation dates back to 8000 BC (Yano and Fu, 2023), with the earliest documented use occurring in the 3^rd Millennium BC (Aloo et al., 2024). The crop continued to be cultivated for generations and is still being grown up to today despite the blanket bans that still exists in some countries worldwide (Dhondt and Muthu, 2021) (Fig 1). It is reported that hemp cultivation originated in Asia, predominantly in countries such as China, Japan and Korea (Koltai and Namdar, 2020; Aloo et al., 2024). However, some studies have suggested a European origin (McPartland and Hegman, 2018). The history of hemp and human society is complex and extensive, reflecting its importance as a food and fiber crop during the age of discovery and its widespread prohibition under the umbrella marijuana ban (Yano and Fu, 2023).


       
The crop was grown for different purposes across regions. In China, hemp was used for clothing and textiles, pharmaceuticals and paper, while in Europe and Africa it was mainly grown for food, oils, fibres and clothing (Johnson, 2014). Following the widespread ban under the marijuana umbrella, many countries have begun to re-legalize hemp production for both commercial and research purposes. The largest hemp producers are currently China, United States of America, Canada and France (Hemp CBD Legalization World Map, 2026). The total acreage in European Union countries and North America is approximately 88,000 and 82,000 respectively. China is the world’s largest hemp and fiber producer, planting around 95,000 acres of hemp, thereby contributing significantly to the global total of approximately 270,000 acres (Hemp CBD Legalization World Map, 2026). There are 116 registered hemp varieties in the European Union (EU) as of 2024, with France dedicating around 20,000 hectares to hemp production (Vivek, 2025). In Africa, countries including Zimbabwe and South Africa introduced hemp post-prohibition frameworks in 2018 (Government Gazette of South Africa, 2018). Countries like Uganda, Morocco, Lesotho, Malawi, Eswatini and South Africa have already legalised hemp production (Thetsane, 2024). The main drive behind the resurgence of hemp is its remarkable versatility, which include applications in bioplastics, textiles, oil, cosmetics, construction materials, livestock feed, paper, packaging material and  nutritional products (Simiyu et al., 2022). Most governments now perceive industrial hemp as a cash and climate smart crop that supports industries such as green building, renewable energy and food processing.
 
Industrial hemp as a circular crop
 
There are several characteristics exhibited by industrial hemp that support circularity. Of note are its biological characteristics, potential for effective resource utilization and versatility (Budhathoki et al., 2024) (Fig 3). In contrast with linear production models that produce a lot of waste and pollute the environment, hemp-based systems emphasize recycling with outputs of a particular stage becoming inputs on the other stages, thus, promoting a residue to resource perspective (Moscariello et al., 2021). This perfectly aligns with the circular economy principles. Hemp cultivation by rural farmers creates new economic opportunities, generates jobs and diversifies agriculture (Schumacher et al., 2020). Economic resilience and reduced transportation costs are significantly enhanced when farmers produce raw materials for manufacturers.
 
Waste minimization and resource efficiency
 
Waste minimization is a foundation of the circular economy. This strategy involves waste reduction from cultivation to consumption. All plant parts can be effectively utilized as the case with hemp (Simiyu et al., 2022) (Fig 2). This comprehensive utilization minimizes waste and enhances economic and environmental efficiency (Kaur and Kander, 2023). As illustrated on Fig 2, hemp seed can be used as food source for humans, feed for livestock, oil, cosmetics and fiber for clothing and textiles. Hemp seeds are regarded as superfood because they contain high concentration of proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals (Kaçar et al., 2025).


       
Hemp stem produces the shives (hurd), which are useful as building materials, animal bedding, paper, yarns, spun fibers, carpets and textiles. Currently, cotton is the most utilized cellulose fiber globally. However, the availability of cotton is declining due to the changing climate and the demand for man-made hemp fiber is increasing (Lawson et al., 2022). The decline in cotton availability is further exacerbated by the cultivation restrictions (Schumacher et al., 2020). Moreover, the raw hemp fiber is more durable than the cotton fiber, flax and nettle (Malabadi et al., 2023). Other advantages of hemp include resistance to water damage and flexibility (Kaur and Kander, 2023).
       
Hempcrete is a sustainable and cost effective building material, has good thermal and acoustic-insulation properties (Nath, 2022) and these properties make it a promising candidate in the circular economy new projects and renovations (Kore and Sudarsan, 2021). Engineers have also acknowledged that hempcrete blocks can also be used for roof and wall applications since the implementation is easier than the other building materials (Zuabi and Memari, 2021). Similarly, archeologists have confirmed the utilization of hempcrete in bridge construction dating back to 6^th century AD in France and is still intact up to this day (Stevulova et al., 2018). This alone shows how durable hemp fiber is compared to other building materials such as cement plaster because it does not breathe which stops moisture escape and prompting decay (Fourmentin et al., 2016). Additionally, hemp seeds and stalks are used for food, with cannabis-infused foods currently on the rise in global markets (Pisciottano, 2023) (Fig 3). They have been found to offer therapeutic benefits for brain function, pain management and support in certain cancers (Stanos, 2017). Cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) beverages have garnered incredible interest in the market (Staples, 2024). Products such as cooking ingredients, snacks, chocolates, candies and baking goods are also by-products of industrial hemp. They are made from leaves, seed and flower extracts (Lazarjani et al., 2021).


       
The hemp flower is a concentrated source of bioactive compounds including phenolic compounds, terpenes, non-psychoactive cannabinoids and terpenes (Fordjour et al., 2024). Among the non-psychoactive cannabinoids, Cannabigerol (CBG) and Cannabidiol (CBD) are the two most important non-psychoactive constituents (Nachnani et al., 2021; Masataka et al., 2026). The terpenes produced by hemp flowers may have dermatological applications because hemp bioactive compounds exhibit antioxidant and other skin-related biological activities (Zugić et al., 2024). Hemp flower extracts are also used as a source of food and medicinal supplements.
       
The flower is a good source of essential oils, pharmaceuticals and cosmetic products (Farinon et al., 2020). It offers a wide array of pharmaceuticals properties (Fig 4) including the management of cardiovascular health and metabolic wellness, neuroprotection and mental health disorders (Amin and Ali, 2019) and anti-inflammatory, rheumatoid arthritis (Erridge et al., 2022), epilepsy, pain relief and sleep disorders (Caplan, 2023). Thus, opportunities for drug discovery, food and other health benefits will be enhanced with the continued acceptance of hemp food products enriched with bioactive ingredients. The hemp flower extracts have become relevant in both health and commercial contexts and this is because they are a multifunctional resource with several applications in health and wellness and nutrition.


       
Industrial hemp is considered resource efficient. The resource efficiency emphasizes the optimal use of inputs. Hence, a low-input crop requiring minimal water, fertilizers and pesticides (Jaczynska et al., 2025). Pesticides contribute to several negative environmental impacts on human and animal health and ecosystems. Its root system returns nutrients to the soil, improves the structure of the soil and removes soil contaminants (Nath, 2022). It quickly attains ground cover because of its fast growth, thus, manages weeds well. Water conservation is another critical aspect especially during dry spells and drought and hemp is known for its potential to tolerate drought stress (Mateva et al., 2024) Since hemp can be grown indoors and greenhouses, the strategy can significantly reduce water consumption (Michels et al., 2025). Hemp cultivation also nurtures pollinators such as bees.
 
Environmental benefits and sustainability
 
Global food security is increasingly strained by rapid population growth, escalating climate change impacts and finite natural resources (Jayara et al., 2023; Mutetwa et al., 2026; Saha et al., 2026). Industrial hemp offers various environmental benefits that positions it as a sustainable option mitigating the effects of climate change (Lawson et al., 2022). It is a powerful tool in mitigating the effects of climate change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as altered climate and weather patterns across the earth, resulting from global warming of the atmosphere, which is caused by greenhouse gases (Ayanlade et al., 2023). The potential to mitigate the effects of the changing climate is attributed to the incomparable ability to sequester carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere (Campiglia et al., 2020; Dhondt and Muthu, 2021; Mutetwa et al., 2026). The crop does not require high amounts of herbicides as it attains ground cover early or quickly (Kaur and Kander, 2023). It is reported that hemp plants can reach the height of 4.9 meters (16 feet) in less than four months (Pal and Lucia, 2019), allowing the plants to absorb as much CO₂ as possible more than trees. Hemp grown on 2.5 acre field can absorb and store more than 3 tonnes of carbon and the probability of this carbon to return to the atmosphere is believed to be next to none (Bouloc et al., 2013). Other studies have indicated that hemp can absorb up to 22 tons of CO₂ per hectare, compared to forests, which absorb 3-6 tonnes of CO₂ per hectare (Jami and Kumar, 2017; Adesina et al., 2020).
       
Apart from carbon sequestration, industrial hemp offers many other important benefits that are critical in a circular economy. The plants are fast growing and are used for Phyto-remediation due to their ability to extract nutrients from the soil fast (Lawson et al., 2022). Phytoremediation is using green plants to extract metals and harmful contaminants from soil that and render them harmless (Roebuck and Klink, 2025). It is an economic and sustainable option for cleaning polluted soils thereby improving soil quality. The plants absorb heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, nickel and other contaminants such as residual herbicides, solvents, explosives and hydrocarbons, thus, reducing contamination and metal toxicity that can be harmful to plants, animals and human health (Nath, 2022). The ability of hemp plants to grow fast can enhance absorption of contaminants early, thereby rendering soil contaminants and toxic metals free (Placido and Lee, 2022). Interestingly, hemp can also flourish in soils with metal toxicity where other crops might not survive. Nevertheless, hemp harvested from contaminated soils can still be useful. It can be distilled in ethanol and used as biofuel (Zhao et al., 2020).
       
Biodegradable polymers, such as hemp polymers, have arisen as promising alternatives for sustainable packaging materials. This has been necessitated by the growing global concern over environmental impacts due to conventional plastic materials (Phothisarattana et al., 2021). Fossil-based packages are non-renewable and contributes significantly to environmental degradation due to limited recyclability (Peças et al., 2018). What is worrisome is the rate at which waste is being generated globally. China, being the largest waste producer worldwide, it generates around 60 million tones (Sun et al., 2022), Europe produces approximately 25-30 million tonnes (Burgada et al., 2021) and Africa produces approximately 19 million tonnes of plastic waste annually (WHO, 2023). The magnitude of non-degradable packaging waste has increased the need for renewable, bio-based materials that can support the circular economy principles. Currently, several countries worldwide have formulated different plastic pollution control policies (Phothisarattana et al., 2021; Chong and Xiong, 2025). Hemp is one biopolymer that has attracted global attention due to its biodegradability, renewability and suitability for sustained packaging applications. Additionally, hemp fiber is stiff and strong, making it a good candidate for product protection while reducing losses (Boccarusso et al., 2022). As such, hemp polymers are suitable alternative towards environmentally sustainable packaging systems that align with circular economy objectives. There is also increased demand of plastics in the automobile, construction and electronics such as plastic instead of glass, plastic instead of wood and plastic instead of steel innovation practices (Chong and Xiong, 2025).
 
Energy production
 
The demand for energy is increasingly growing globally due to the growing population and industrialization. The use of plant biomass to generate energy is becoming more critical (Sullins et al., 2017). Plant biomass has considerable potential as a renewable energy resource through conversion into bioethanol, biodiesel, biogas, syngas and biochar. Agricultural residues and dedicated energy crops can contribute to sustainable energy production while reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving resource-use efficiency (Raj et al., 2025). In energy utilization, the demand for biofuels is getting attention because wood resources are becoming scarce with each passing day (Teirumnieka et al., 2023). Hemp use as a source of energy becomes critical for two main reasons. The first reason is that, the hemp crop yield per hectare is comparatively high ranging between 3,000-4,000 kg/ha of bast fiber from the stem of which, most of the hemp shives are left to decompose in the field and improve organic matter (Kraszkiewicz et al., 2019), cotton, on the other hand yields between 1,500-2, 000 kg/ha  of lint fiber from the seed (Jaczynska et al., 2025). Secondly, hemp has a heat value of 19.1MJ/kg on average compared to other plants like cotton which yields around 16-18MJ/kg (Dhondt and Muthu, 2021). The use of hemp in automobile and manufacturing companies as conduits and fittings is also cost effective when compared to non-renewable sources  (Hagnell et al., 2020).
 
Challenges limiting hemp roles in the circular economy
 
While it is noble that hemp plants grow fast and remove contaminants from the soil due to their potential to take-up nutrients fast from the soil  (Paulitz et al., 2017), this results in heavy metal accumulation in all the parts of the plant, which is an advantage in bioremediation. High concentrations of metals such as chromium, nickel, lead and mercury have been observed in hemp stalks (Placido and Lee, 2022). Furthermore, information on how hemp-based products vary in terms of environmental impacts has not been fully explored. This implies that the sustainability of hemp products needs to be evaluated individually and thoroughly. This entails evaluating the whole plant value chain, from cultivation to processing, manufacturing to disposal (Budhathoki et al., 2024).
       
Many countries are now growing hemp, with China being the largest hemp producer and exporting country globally (Nath, 2022). Canada and Europe are also significant players in the global hemp market (Crini et al., 2020). Africa, although adoption is slow, there is a substantial number of countries growing hemp including Lesotho, Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa (Thetsane, 2024). However, the market growth is still hindered by the regulations and legislative structure for cultivation and use of industrial hemp (Bodwitch et al., 2019). Despite the upward trajectory of hemp adoption worldwide, the market still wrestles with disjointed regulations that vary widely from one country to the other, thereby creating barriers. Furthermore, long turn around times for finalising regulatory frameworks is another setback faced by growers (Thetsane, 2024). This is because hemp belongs to the Cannabis sativa species, the crop is still subject to strict controls as those of marijuana (Jacobs et al., 2020). In many countries such as Zimbabwe, licensing procedures are still very restrictive. The discrepancies in terms of THC thresholds and inconsistent regulations across the globe create disharmony and uncertainty for farmers and investors. There is need to conscientize the farmers on the benefits of hemp and also increase legalization of hemp cultivation. This means that hemp industry growth is dependent on the legislative structure. There is need for countries to appreciate the importance of hemp and initiate growth policies and marketing strategies that will benefit the environment and their economies.
       
Another major bottleneck across the hemp value chain is the limited availability of technical information and expertise. Hemp growers lack agronomic expertise required for optimal hemp cultivation while the processors are not knowledgeable about fiber and oil processing procedures or the requisite equipment for processing (Sunoj et al., 2023). Hemp adoption may be further constrained by lack of research and extension services and training. Lack of these aspects slows adoption of hemp cultivation and thus limits productivity in the circular economy (Dingha et al., 2019).
       
Although global demand for sustainable materials is increasing, hemp products often struggle to compete with established conventional alternatives such as synthetic fibers, timber and fossil-based materials. Additionally, economies of scale for hemp production are still developing, making hemp-based products relatively expensive and less competitive in price-sensitive markets. A significant restraint is the lack of widespread consumer awareness about industrial hemp’s benefits and distinctions from marijuana, fostering misconceptions that slow demand growth. In markets like the Middle East and Africa, where stigma persists, educational campaigns are sparse, resulting in underutilization despite potential in biofuels and textiles (UNCTAD, 2022). This knowledge gap affects retail penetration, with hemp products often confined to niche stores rather than mainstream supermarkets and convenience outlets. Surveys indicate that only about 40% of potential consumers understand hemp’s non-psychoactive nature, limiting sales in food and cosmetics applications (Prohibition Partners Report, 2019).  Addressing this requires collaborative efforts from industry and governments to build trust, but persistent gaps continue to restrain market momentum.
 
Future prospects and research gaps
 
Industrial hemp holds considerable promise for advancing circular economy objectives; however, realizing this potential requires targeted technological, policy and research interventions. Future prospects for industrial hemp largely depend on advances in cultivation, processing and product development technologies (Johnson and Wallace, 2019). Innovations in mechanized harvesting, efficient decortication and biorefinery systems can improve resource efficiency and enable full utilization of hemp biomass. Emerging technologies in bio-composites, bioplastics and carbon-negative construction materials such as hempcrete further enhance hemp’s role in circular value chains (Yadav et al., 2020). Digital agriculture and precision farming tools also offer opportunities to optimize hemp production while reducing environmental impacts.
               
Supportive and harmonized policy frameworks are critical for scaling up productivity (Mutetwa et al., 2026). including hemp-based circular economy systems. Reforms are needed to clearly distinguish industrial hemp from psychoactive cannabis, simplify licensing procedures and standardize THC thresholds across regions. Policies that promote green industries such as tax incentives, subsidies, public procurement of bio-based products and support for research and development can accelerate investment and adoption (Schluttenhofer and Yuan, 2017). Integrating hemp into agricultural, industrial and environmental policies would strengthen its contribution to sustainable development. For hemp to reach its full potential, it must be strategically integrated into national and regional circular economy frameworks (Kirchherr et al., 2017) This includes recognizing hemp as a priority bio-based resource, supporting local processing infrastructure and encouraging public–private partnerships. Aligning hemp development with national sustainability goals, climate action plans and green industrialization strategies can enhance coherence between policy, industry and research, ensuring long-term viability and impact.

Industrial hemp demonstrates strong alignment with circular economy principles through its rapid growth, low input requirements and capacity for whole-plant utilization. Across multiple sectors including construction, textiles, packaging, food and bioenergy hemp-based products enable resource efficiency, waste reduction and value retention, reinforcing closed-loop production systems. Environmentally, hemp contributes to carbon sequestration, soil restoration and reduced reliance on synthetic and fossil-based materials, while economically it supports job creation, rural development and value addition. Despite these advantages, several challenges continue to constrain the integration of industrial hemp into circular systems. Regulatory and legal barriers remain a major limitation, as inconsistent policies and stringent controls increase uncertainty for producers and investors. Inadequate processing infrastructure restricts local value addition and weakens circular supply chains, particularly in developing regions. High initial investment costs, coupled with limited access to finance, further hinder participation by smallholder farmers and emerging enterprises. Additionally, knowledge gaps, insufficient technical skills and limited market awareness reduce productivity and competitiveness of hemp-based products. Overall, industrial hemp holds significant potential to contribute to sustainable and circular economic transitions if these challenges are systematically addressed as it is a lower chance of bioaccumulation and plastic pollution, renewable and has a higher rate of biodegradability, thereby less environmental impacts. Advances in processing technologies, supportive and harmonized policy frameworks, expanded research and improved market development are essential to unlocking its full value. By integrating industrial hemp into national circular economy strategies and green industrialization policies, governments and stakeholders can enhance resource efficiency, promote inclusive economic growth and support climate resilience. Consequently, industrial hemp represents a viable and scalable pathway toward a more circular, low-carbon and sustainable future.

The authors thank Midlands State University, Zimbabwe for access to library resources.
 
Authors’ contributions
 
Conceptualization and manuscript write-up: R.M. Zishiri, E.W. Mhuru, M. Maphosa, C. Parwada, T. Mhlahlayazi, T.T. Haripo. M. Mutetwa.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.