Ethiopia possesses one of the largest livestock populations in Africa, which plays a central role in the livelihoods of millions of rural households and contributes substantially to the national economy. Despite this enormous resource base, the productivity of the livestock subsector remains low and its contribution to gross domestic product is far below its potential (FAO, 2021; CSA, 2022). Low genetic potential of indigenous breeds, inadequate feed resources, poor animal health services and limited adoption of improved management practices continue to constrain milk production in the country. Consequently, national milk production and per capita milk consumption remain low compared with many other African countries (FAO, 2020).
       
Rapid population growth, urbanization and rising household incomes in Ethiopia have led to a steadily increasing demand for livestock products, particularly milk and milk products. Projections indicate that to meet this growing demand, national milk production must increase by at least 4-5% annually (ILRI, 2019; FAO, 2021). Addressing the widening gap between milk supply and demand requires the development of sustainable and context-specific dairy development strategies that consider socio-economic conditions, institutional arrangements and agro-ecological diversity, while responding to consumer demand and producer capacity (Azage et al., 2019).
       
Milk plays a vital role in household nutrition, income generation and food security for both rural and urban populations in Ethiopia. It is produced daily and either consumed at home, sold as fresh milk, or processed into traditional dairy products such as butter, ghee and cottage cheese (Ayib). In rural areas, milk serves as an important source of cash income, enabling households to purchase other food items and meet essential needs (Ministry of Agriculture, 2021). However, limited access to formal markets, inadequate transportation infrastructure and lack of cooling facilities restrict the marketing of fresh milk. As a result, most smallholder farmers rely on traditional processing methods, often using sour milk as the primary raw material for further processing (FAO, 2020).
       
In West Hararghe Zone, milk production is an integral component of the mixed crop-livestock farming system. The majority of milk is produced by indigenous cattle managed under traditional smallholder systems. According to CSA (2021), over 99% of the cattle population in the zone consists of indigenous breeds, with average daily milk yield per cow estimated at approximately 1.5 liters. Although the zone has considerable potential for milk and milk product development due to its large cattle population and strong local demand, dairy production, processing and utilization practices remain largely traditional and poorly documented.

Despite the importance of milk in the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in West Hararghe Zone, there is limited recent information on raw milk handling, processing and utilization practices, as well as the associated constraints and opportunities. A clear understanding of these existing practices is essential for designing effective interventions and research programs tailored to local conditions. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the handling, processing and utilization practices of raw cow milk in selected districts of West Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia.

Study institution and period of research
       
The study was carried out within the research mandate areas of Oda Bultum University in the Mieso, Chiro and Tulo districts of  West Hararghe Zone, situated approximately 326 km east of Addis Ababa. The study spanned a three-year period from 2023 to 2025, including data collection, analysis and write-up processes.
 
Sampling strategy
 
The study employed a multistage sampling technique to select respondents from three agro-ecologically distinct. In the first stage, three districts representing different agro-ecological zones (lowland, midland and highland) were purposively selected based on their dairy production potential, cattle population and accessibility.
       
In the second stage, a list of milk-producing households in each selected district was obtained from the respective district agricultural offices. From these lists, respondent households were selected using simple random sampling to ensure equal probability of selection.

A total of 225 respondents were included in the study, with 75 respondents selected from each district to ensure proportional representation across the three agro-ecological zones. Only households that owned lactating cows and were actively involved in milk production and utilization at the time of the survey were considered eligible for inclusion.
 
Data collection
 
Data were collected from 225 randomly selected smallholder dairy households across three agro-ecological districts (Chiro, Meiso and Tulo) using a structured questionnaire. Information gathered includes milking practices, milk processing and utilization, consumption patterns and constraints to dairy production. The questionnaire combined close- and open-ended questions to allow quantitative and qualitative analysis.
       
Key informant interviews were conducted with agricultural extension officers, veterinarians and experienced farmers to obtain insights on local dairy systems, market access and traditional processing methods. Direct observations were made at household farms to document milking hygiene, container types, fermentation and butter-making practices.
 
Statistical analysis
 
Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 29 will be used to analyze the data collected through the survey.
 

Y_ij = P + α_i + β_j + e_ij 

 
Where,
P = Overall mean.
Y_ij = Refers to individual observation.
α = I^th locations effect.
β = J^th farm groups effect (farmers ).
e_ij = Error term.

Milk containers handling and milking practices
 
The data presented in Table 1 shows that cows in the study areas were predominantly milked twice per day in traditional dairy management practices. About 91.7%, 84.7% and 92.1% of respondents in Tulo, Chiro and Meiso districts, respectively, reported milking their cows twice daily, whereas 8.3% in Chiro and 15.3% in Meiso milked their cows only once per day, mainly in the evening (Table 1). Similar milking frequencies among smallholder dairy farmers have been reported in other parts of Ethiopia (FAO, 2020; Gebreyohanes et al., (2021). All respondents indicated that they washed their hands and milking vessels before milking, which reflects a basic awareness of milk hygiene. However, practices such as dipping the milker’s fingers into the milk to moisten teats were commonly observed.


       
This practice is known to increase the risk of microbial contamination of raw milk and has been identified as a major hygienic challenge in traditional milking systems (FAO, 2020; Gebreyohanes et al., (2021). Similar milk handling practices have been documented in other dairy-producing areas of Ethiopia, where inadequate hygienic practices can contribute to poor microbial quality of milk and dairy products (Mengstu et al., 2023; Zelalem and Faye, 2006). Furthermore, the use of clean towels or individual udder cloths for udder preparation before milking was very limited in the present study areas. Limited adoption of proper udder cleaning practices has also been reported in recent studies conducted in central and eastern Ethiopia, where lack of access to clean water, limited awareness and reliance on traditional knowledge constrained hygienic milk production (Abebe et al., 2021; FAO, 2021).
 
Storage and processing containers of dairy products
 
The findings presented in Table 2 reveal that traditional containers locally known as kaba were the predominant utensils used for milking, storage and processing of dairy products in the study areas. The kaba varies in size and function: the small-sized kaba (qaabe) is mainly used for milking, the medium-sized container (kedada) is used for milk storage and the large-sized kaba (Diro) is used for churning milk to produce butter. The widespread use of these traditional containers reflects the continued importance of indigenous knowledge and locally available resources in smallholder dairy systems. Similar reliance on traditional processing and utilization practices has been reported among smallholder dairy farmers in northwestern Ethiopia, where traditional methods remained important for the processing, utilization and marketing of dairy products (Asaminew and Seifu, 2011). Plastic containers were also used for milking, particularly in areas with better market access. All respondents (100%) in Chiro and 70.09% in Meiso reported using kaba (kil) for milking, while 29.91% of respondents in Meiso district used plastic containers (Table 2). Similar patterns of mixed use of traditional and plastic milking containers have been reported in recent studies in eastern and central Ethiopia, where plastic containers are increasingly adopted due to their availability and low cost, despite concerns related to milk hygiene and cleaning difficulties (FAO, 2020; Gebreyohanes et al., 2021).With regard to milk churning practices, the majority of respondents in Chiro (97.7%) used Diro churns, whereas in Meiso district, 23.68% and 76.32% of respondents used Diro and clay pot churns, respectively. Respondents, particularly in Chiro district, indicated a preference for kaba (Diro) of different sizes due to its efficiency, durability and ease of access, as it can be produced locally from gourds grown around homesteads. In contrast, respondents from Meiso district preferred clay pot churns, citing ease of churning and higher butter recovery from a given volume of milk.


       
The preference for different churning containers across districts also indicates that traditional dairy-processing technologies remain an important component of smallholder dairy production. Although these technologies are locally appropriate, affordable and culturally accepted, inadequate cleaning and sanitation of traditional containers may increase the risk of microbial contamination of milk and dairy products. Therefore, improving cleaning, sanitation and handling practices while maintaining appropriate indigenous technologies could contribute to improved milk quality and dairy-product safety (Zelalem and Faye, 2006; Fekata et al., 2023). Similarly, storage conditions and handling practices can influence microbial activity, product quality and the shelf life of milk and dairy products (Tomar and Tiwari, 2024). Thus, interventions aimed at improving dairy hygiene should consider the existing traditional practices and technologies while promoting appropriate and practical improvements in container cleaning, sanitation and storage.

Cleaning and smoking plants for milk containers
 
The cleaning and smoking plants for milk containers in the area presented in Table 3. The most common technique of cleaning containers is washing with warm water together with plant leaves of kessie (Ocimum hardiense) and finally rinsing with cold water. Moreover, it was noticed that the milk utensils are washed with warm water first and then with cold water when the plant species are not available around their home stead (Table 3). Ocimum hardiense (kessie in Amharic) is the most common used plant species used to clean vessels. It also used to store milk and milk products. This report is consistent with report of Alganesh (2002) and Lemma (2004) who reported similar practices in Eastern Wollega and East Shoa Zones of Oromia region, respectively. Whereas Olea africana is the most frequently used plant for smoking milk containers in Chiro , Meiso and Tulo district. This is consistent with other parts of the country (Alganesh, 2002; Lemma, 2004; Zelalem and Faye, 2006). The use of indigenous preservation practices may contribute to improved milk quality and shelf life; however, Fekata et al., (2023) emphasized that maintaining hygienic handling practices alongside traditional preservation methods is essential for ensuring milk safety and reducing post-harvest losses.


 
Churning of milk for butter making
 
The findings presented in  Table 4 indicate that hand mixing was the most common method used by dairy households for churning milk in the study districts. In Tulo district, 61 respondents (48.2%) used hand mixing, while 39 respondents (51.8%) reported no stirring. In Chiro district, 32 respondents (42.7%) practiced hand mixing and 43 respondents (57.3%) did not stir the milk during processing. In Meiso district, 47 respondents (62.7%) used hand mixing, whereas 28 respondents (37.3%) practiced no stirring. Overall, out of the total 225 respondents, 115 (51.1%) practiced hand mixing, while 110 (48.9%) reported no stirring.


       
These findings suggest that traditional manual mixing practices dominate dairy processing in the study area, reflecting limited access to improved dairy processing equipment. The relatively high proportion of households not stirring milk during processing may negatively affect the uniformity and quality of dairy products such as butter and fermented milk. Similar observations were reported by Sintayehu (2010), who noted that smallholder dairy farmers in Ethiopia largely depend on traditional hand-based processing methods due to lack of modern dairy technologies. Likewise, Food and Agriculture Organization (2011) reported that manual handling and traditional processing techniques remain common in rural dairy systems in developing countries, often influencing product quality and processing efficiency.Similar findings were also reported by Dhineshkumar et al., (2016), who indicated that improved dairy processing technologies enhance processing efficiency and contribute to better product quality and safety.
       
The higher proportion of hand mixing observed in Meiso district compared to Tulo and Chiro may indicate greater involvement in traditional butter or fermented milk processing practices, while the relatively higher percentage of no stirring in Tulo and Chiro may reflect differences in household processing habits or milk utilization patterns. These variations highlight the need for training and introduction of improved dairy processing techniques to enhance efficiency and product quality among smallholder dairy producers.
       
The findings presented in Table 5 below revealed that households in the area typically churn an average of 6.5 liters of fermented milk (ergo) at a time. The volume of milk churned is influenced by several factors, including the number of milking cows, breed type (indigenous or crossbred), availability of fresh milk and naturally fermented milk and household consumption needs. In the study districts, fresh milk is left to ferment naturally without preservatives; however, farmers often clean and smoke their milk containers, practices that help preserve the milk and enhance its aroma (Abebe et al., 2021).


       
On average, the production of 1 kilogram of butter in the study area requires approximately 18.1 liters of fresh milk, which is slightly higher than the 16.2 liters reported in eastern Wollega (Alganesh et al., 2002). This difference may be attributed to variation in feed quality, cow genetics and milk handling practices (FAO, 2020; ILRI, 2019).
 
Constraints to milk production and processing
 
The results presented in Table 6 indicate that several factors constrain milk production in the study districts of Tulo, Chiro and Meiso. Among the identified constraints, feed shortage and low milk yield of available breeds were the most frequently reported problems across the districts. Feed shortage accounted for 24% of respondents in Tulo, 20.56% in Chiro and 19.83% in Meiso, indicating that the limited availability of quality feed is a major challenge affecting dairy productivity. Similarly, the low milk yield of available breeds was reported by 22% of respondents in Tulo, 20% in Chiro and 20.39% in Meiso, suggesting that the low genetic potential of indigenous cattle significantly limits milk production. Diseases were also an important constraint, particularly in Chiro (16.67%) and Meiso (19.28%), while low milk price was reported by 13% of respondents in Tulo, 14.72% in Chiro and 4.08% in Meiso, indicating market-related challenges. In addition, lack of market access was reported by 5% of respondents in Tulo, 10% in Chiro and 14.19% in Meiso, while shortage of labor was mentioned by 7%, 6% and 5.23% of respondents in Tulo, Chiro and Meiso, respectively. Furthermore, inadequate artificial insemination (AI) services and poor blood level were reported by 17% of respondents in Tulo and 12.05% in Chiro, indicating limited access to improved breeding services. Overall, the findings suggest that feed shortage, low milk yield of local breeds and animal diseases are the major constraints affecting dairy production in the study area.


       
Similarly, feed scarcity and poor-quality feed resources have been widely reported as important constraints limiting dairy production in Ethiopian smallholder systems (Duguma and Janssens, 2021; Tolasa et al., 2020). The finding that low milk yield of local breeds is an important constraint also agrees with Tolasa et al., (2020), who reported that the low genetic capacity of indigenous cattle contributes to low dairy productivity in Ethiopia. Furthermore, the present finding that livestock diseases affect milk production is consistent with Nyokabi et al., (2023), who identified livestock diseases as important constraints to smallholder dairy production and highlighted the limited adoption of appropriate biosecurity practices in Ethiopia.In addition, inadequate artificial insemination services and weak market systems identified in the current study were also reported as major bottlenecks in the Ethiopian dairy sector by FAO (2021) and CSA (2022). Therefore, the results of the present study confirm that feed shortage, low genetic potential of local breeds and animal health problems remain the dominant constraints affecting dairy production in Ethiopia.

Dairy production in the study area is largely based on traditional practices. Cows are mainly hand-milked, with calves commonly allowed to suckle before and after milking. Although all respondents reported washing hands and milking vessels prior to milking, overall hygienic practices along the dairy value chain were inadequate, posing risks to milk quality. Traditional containers known as kaba, made from kil, were the dominant utensils for milking, storage and processing, with size variations including kabo (milking), kadada (storage) and diro (churning); plastic containers were also used. Most households in Chiro, Meiso and Tulo relied on diro churns for butter making. Ocimum hardiense and Olea africana were commonly used for cleaning and smoking milk vessels, respectively. Major constraints included lack of milk markets, low milk yield, poor product quality and cultural taboos.

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Oda Bultum University for providing financial support and the necessary materials required to conduct this research.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and interpretations presented in this manuscript are solely those of the authors and are based on the findings obtained from the study. The authors are responsible for the content of this manuscript.
 
Informed  consent
 
The ethical consent was obtained from Oda Bultum University, Research Review Committee to collect data and conduct the research and the committee approved this research work.

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.