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Current IssueEditorial BoardOnline First ArticlesArchive

Review Article

Aquafeed Ingredient Resources of Northeast-India: A Review

D
Dauruhi Pde1,*
B
Bornalee Handique1
A
Arunjyoti Baruah1
A
Amjad K. Balange1
1ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute Assam, Gogamukh, Dhemaji-787 035, Assam, India.

ABSTRACT

The availability and cost of feed ingredients are major constraints to aquaculture development in Northeast-India. The region possesses diverse agricultural, horticultural and biological resources, including plant materials, insects and agricultural and animal-processing by-products, with potential as alternative aquafeed resources. However, their nutritional value, antinutritional factors (ANF), processing requirements and feeding evidence vary considerably. Relevant literature on alternative feed resources available in Northeast-India was reviewed using scientific databases and government and institutional sources. Information on nutritional-composition, ANF, processing, availability and fish feeding-trials was compiled and critically evaluated. A wide range of plant, animal and insect-based resources were identified. Their nutritional-composition varied among resources, while fibre and ANF may limit direct use in fish diets. Processing methods such as boiling, drying, fermentation and detoxification can improve their suitability. Although feeding-trials have demonstrated the potential of several resources, most studies were conducted outside Northeast-India. Many regionally available resources therefore remain insufficiently validated through controlled fish feeding-trials using locally sourced materials.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture has emerged as an important sector for food and nutritional security, contributing substantially to global food supply and meeting the growing demand for animal-source protein (Garlock et al., 2022). In India, the sector has expanded considerably, contributing to food security, foreign exchange earnings and employment generation (Sahoo et al., 2023; Sidiq et al., 2024). In Northeast-India, aquaculture production remains substantially lower than the national average, resulting in considerable dependence on fish supplies from other parts of the country (Pde et al., 2025). Fish is an important source of animal protein in the region, with mean per capita consumption estimated at 11.54 kg in 2024-25 (HFS, 2025). The region aquaculture development is constrained by limited availability and high cost of feed ingredients, seed quality, species suitability and climatic constraints (Das, 2018; Debnath et al., 2020; Dutta et al., 2022; Lalrinsanga and Doley, 2022).
       
Feed constitutes a major operational cost in fed aquaculture and its availability and affordability directly influence the economic viability of fish farming (Nates, 2016; Verdegem et al., 2021). Aquaculture in Northeast-India faces limited commercial aquafeed production and inadequate availability of raw materials. Conventional ingredients such as fishmeal, soybean meal, bran, oilcake are sourced from outside the region and transportation costs further increase feed prices (Upadhyay, 2022; Bhuyan et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2017).
       
The region has considerable agricultural and biological resources that could contribute to local aquafeed production. Paddy is a principal crop cultivated in the region; provides rice bran and broken rice, while mustard oil cake is available as a by-product of oil extraction (De and Singh, 2017; Das, 2018). Other conventional plant ingredients, such as groundnut, maize and soybean, may have limited availability because of their competing use for human consumption (Das et al., 2018). The region also has several underutilized resources, including tuber leaves of sweet potato, taro and yam, Moringa, ferns and insects such as silkworm pupae (Thangjam et al., 2020; Verma et al., 2023). However, their nutritional-composition, ANF, processing requirements and feeding value vary considerably. This review aims to assess the availability, nutritional characteristics, processing requirements, economic feasibility and aquaculture potential of locally available feed resources in Northeast-India, while identifying key constraints and strategies for their effective incorporation into region-specific fish diets.
 
Literature search and review methodology
 
Literature for this review was identified through searches of major scientific databases and relevant scholarly, government and institutional sources. Searches used combinations of keywords related to aquafeed ingredients, alternative feed resources, nutritional-composition, feed processing, fish nutrition, aquaculture and Northeast-India. No publication-period restriction was applied and relevant literature available up to manuscript preparation was considered. Research articles, reviews, reports, statistical publications and selected reports addressing the availability, nutritional characteristics, processing, utilization, economic aspects or aquaculture potential of feed resources were included. The information was critically evaluated and descriptively synthesized to identify nutritional advantages, limitations, demonstrated applications, potential uses and research gaps.
 
Feed ingredient scenario
 
Fish farmers in Northeast-India obtain fishmeal raw materials mainly through the Jagiroad dry fish market in Morigaon district, Assam. Dry fish is imported from states including Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and subsequently distributed to wholesalers and retailers across the Northeastern states (Upadhyay, 2022). Common conventional aquafeed ingredients such as rice bran, soyabean meal, wheat bran and groundnut oil cake is scarce and are largely sourced from outside the region (Bhuyan et al., 2023). The prices of commercial feeds and feed ingredients are generally higher than the source states, partly due to transportation costs and geographical constraints resulting in insufficient agriculture production. Exploring locally available, non-conventional feed resources that do not compete with human food could therefore help reduce feed costs and improve ingredient supply.
 
Agri-horticulture and plantation resources of Northeast-India
 
Agriculture is a major livelihood activity in Northeast-India, with rice being the principal food crop and occupying more than 85% of the farming area (Dikshit and Dikshit, 2014). The region produced approximately 7.88 million tonnes of cereals in 2024-25, while the gross cropped area was about 6.39 million hectares in 2022-23 (NER Databank, 2026; Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, 2026). Oilseeds covered approximately 470.05 thousand hectares, with a production of about 399.88 thousand tonnes in 2024-25 (NER Databank, 2026). The agricultural production system is marked by a low cropping intensity, predominantly focused on subsistence farming and heavily reliant on mono-cropping practices. Natural rubber is a substantial plantation resources in the region covered approximately 2.58 lakh ha (NER Databank, 2026). Rubber seeds represent a potential underutilized resource, with an estimated annual production of about 45,000 tonnes in India, although only a small proportion is collected and utilized (MEF and CC, 2016). Tea is another major plantation crop, with approximately 1.45 lakh hectares under cultivation in the Northeastern states (NER Databank, 2026). These agricultural and plantation resources provide a diverse biomass base for exploring locally available alternative feed ingredients.
 
Alternative feed ingredient resources
 
The integration of new farming technologies has shifted aquaculture towards more intensive production systems, increasing resource requirements and production costs, particularly through greater reliance on formulated feeds (Araujo et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2023; Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2025). Locally available, low-cost resources, including plant- and animal-based by-products, insects and other non-conventional plant materials, may help reduce dependence on conventional feed ingredients and can be used fresh, dried or processed for incorporation into aquafeeds (Cottrell et al., 2020). However, their nutritional value and suitability can vary with species, location, cultivation conditions and processing. Although the proximate composition of many non-conventional resources has been reported, their digestibility, palatability, bioavailability and ANF, particularly for region-specific resources, remain insufficiently evaluated. Region-specific assessment of these characteristics, together with controlled feeding-trials, is therefore necessary to determine their nutritional value, appropriate inclusion levels, effects on growth and feed utilization and potential limitations. Such evaluation is particularly important for identifying locally suitable ingredients that could help address the availability and high cost of conventional feed resources in Northeast-India. Although feeding-trials have been conducted for some resources discussed in this review, several remain insufficiently evaluated in controlled fish-feeding studies. The reported nutritional-composition, major ANF and available feeding evidence are summarized in Table 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The following locally available resources are discussed as potential alternative feed ingredients.

Table 1: Nutritional-composition of potential non-conventional feed resources.



Table 2: Reported antinutritional factors associated with potential non-conventional feed resources.



Table 3: Reported feeding-trial evidence for selected non-conventional feed resources in cultured fish.

 
Tuber leaf
 
Tuber crops such as sweet potato, Colocasia, tapioca etc. are widely cultivated across the region in both hills and plains, either as mixed or sole crops. Their low input requirements and relative resistance to serious diseases and insect damage make them preferred risk-averse crops in the region (Jha and Deka, 2010). The leaves and other vegetative parts of these crops may therefore represent locally available resources for exploration as alternative aquafeed ingredients. Potential tuber-leaf resources are discussed below.
 
Sweet potato leaf
 
Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, with both vines and roots used as food and livestock feed (Woolfe, 1992; Chauhan et al., 2021). Its leaves have potential as a plant-based feed resource due to their relatively high protein content (16.69-31.08%). The variation in nutritional-composition reported in Table 1 may reflect differences in cultivar, growing conditions and processing (Sun et al., 2014). The leaves also contain carotenoids, vitamins B2, C and E and minerals such as iron (Ishida, 2000).
 
Cassava leaf
 
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) leaves are used as vegetables and livestock feed and contain relatively high protein (19.7-38.1% dry matter), along with vitamins (B1, B2 and C), carotenoids and minerals (Parmar et al., 2017). Their nutritional-composition (Table 1) varies with cultivar, growing conditions and processing (Parmar et al., 2017). However, the presence of ANF (Table 2) necessitates appropriate processing and evaluation of safe inclusion levels before their use in aquafeeds.
 
Yam leaf
 
Twenty-eight species of yam (Dioscorea spp.) have been reported from Northeast-India (Sharma and Hore, 1995). Yam leaves contain appreciable protein and other nutrients (Table 1), indicating potential as a locally available feed resource (Akachukwu et al., 2020). However, variation among species and other factors may affect their nutritional value and suitability for aquafeed use, while several ANF reported are summarized in Table 2.
 
Taro leaf
 
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) corms, leaves, petioles and flowers are edible and are also used as livestock feed, particularly for pigs and poultry in rural areas (Thirugnanavel et al., 2015). The leaves contain appreciable nutrients, including 18-24% crude protein (Table 1), but also contain ANF (Table 2) that may affect nutrient utilization and therefore require further study before their incorporation into aquafeeds.
 
Elephant foot yam leaf
 
Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus sp.) is cultivated in several parts of India, including the Northeast, where its tuber, soft stems and leaves are used as vegetables (Singh et al., 2020). However, information on the nutritional-composition, ANF and suitability of its leaves as an aquafeed ingredient remains limited, warranting further characterization and feeding-trials to assess its potential.
 
Other tubers leaves
 
Several edible tubers and stems, including giant taro (Alocasia), tannia (Xanthosoma) and swamp taro (Cyrtosperma), are available in the region (Sharma and Hore, 1995; Thirugnanavel et al., 2015). The leaves of giant taro and tannia contain appreciable nutrients (Table 1), with crude protein reported at 24.0% and 23.1-58.5%, respectively (Kuo, 1967; de Souza Araújo et al., 2019). Their potential use in aquafeeds therefore requires consideration of ANF (Table 2), nutritional variation, processing requirements and feeding performance. Flemingia vestita, commercially cultivated in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, for its tubers, while its leaves remain largely underutilized and may warrant evaluation for their nutritional-composition and potential as an aquafeed ingredient.
 
Mulberry leaf
 
Mulberry (Morus alba) leaves are widely cultivated for the sericulture industry and represent an established biomass resource in the region. The leaves contain appreciable protein and other nutrients (Table 1), with crude protein reported at 15-32% (Srivastava et al., 2006; Sarkhel et al., 2022). Their availability as a sericulture by-product and nutritional-composition indicate potential as an alternative resource. However, variation in composition and the presence of ANF (Table 2) should be considered when evaluating their suitability for fish feed.
 
Turi leaf
 
Turi (Sesbania grandiflora) is a multipurpose, fast-growing tree whose flowers, leaves, seeds and wood are utilized for food, animal feed and other purposes (Ginting and Mirwandhono, 2021). The leaves contain 25.37% crude protein (Raman et al., 2024), with other proximate components reported in Table 1. However, ANF (Table 2) may limit their nutritional utilization, warranting evaluation of processing methods and appropriate inclusion levels.
 
Drumstick leaf
 
Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) leaves are valued for their nutritional content, particularly minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2016). The leaves contain appreciable protein, with reported crude protein content of 22-25% (González-Burgos et al., 2021; Chaudhary et al., 2023). Although the nutritional-composition (Table 1) indicates potential as an alternative feed resource, the presence of ANF (Table 2) may influence nutrient utilization.
 
Squash or chayote
 
Squash or chayote (Sechium edule) is extensively cultivated in the hilly parts of the region but remains largely underutilized (Verma et al., 2017). Its leaves contain 15.01-21.11% protein (Table 1), while fruits and stems contain 13.62% and 14.58%, respectively (Magouz et al., 2008; Lalthansanga and Samanta, 2015). However, variation among plant parts and the presence of ANF (Table 2) warrant evaluation of the nutrient utilization, inclusion rates and processing requirements.
 
Cucumber leaf
 
The Northeast region has diverse cucumber (Cucumis sativus) types with considerable morphological variation (Chakraborty et al., 2019). Cucumber leaves contain appreciable nutritional value (Table 1), with 26.87% crude protein (Magouz et al., 2008). However, the presence of ANF (Table 2) and limited feeding evidence warrant further evaluation of their processing requirements, nutrient utilization and appropriate dietary inclusion rates.
 
Broad bean leaf
 
Broad bean (Vicia faba) is cultivated in Northeast-India and consumed as a vegetable, while its protein-rich foliage is also used as cattle fodder (Juliana et al., 2012; Verma et al., 2016). The leaves contain 27.45% crude protein (Magouz et al., 2008) with other proximate components (Table 1) and ANF reported in Table 2. These characteristics support further evaluation of broad bean leaves as an alternative resource.
 
Buckwheat leaf
 
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is cultivated in the high-altitude areas of Northeast-India as a staple food and is also used as livestock, poultry and pig feed (Misra et al., 2019). Its leaves contain 16-18% crude protein (Dziadek et al., 2018) along with other nutrients (Table 1). However, their relatively high fibre content and ANF (Table 2) may affect nutrient utilization and limit their inclusion in fish diets.
 
East indian glory bower
 
The East Indian glory bower (Clerodendrum colebrookianum) is a perennial shrub native to Northeast-India and valued for its medicinal (antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties) and culinary uses (Kalita et al., 2012; Kar et al., 2019; Deb et al., 2021). Its leaves contain 27.67% crude protein (Table 1), indicating potential as a locally available plant-based feed resource (Seal, 2011). However, the presence of ANF (Table 2) and limited information on its use in fish diets warrant further evaluation of its processing requirements, nutrient utilization and appropriate dietary inclusion rates.
 
Brewers by-product
 
Rice-brewing by-products are traditionally used as feed resources in Northeast-India. In Tripura, rice beer by-products have been incorporated with rice bran and mustard oil cake in fish feed mixtures, while they are also used as livestock feed, particularly for pigs (Das et al., 2013; Sonowal et al., 2021). The by-product contains 20-25% crude protein (Table 1) along with other nutrients (Barman et al., 2020; Lalhriatpuii and Patra, 2022). Millet-brewing by-products are similarly used as livestock feed in Meghalaya. Their existing use and availability indicate potential as an alternative resource, although nutritional-composition, inclusion-rate and processing require consideration.
 
Animal processing byproduct
 
Northeast-India has a predominantly non-vegetarian population, with substantial consumption of meat and fish products. Meat and fish processing generate by-products such as intestines and viscera that may serve as nutrient-rich animal protein sources for aquafeeds. Chicken viscera contain approximately 60.67% crude protein, while intestinal and fish viscera contain 53.77% and 38.8%, respectively (Table 1) (Pratyush et al., 2014; Giri et al., 2000). Their high protein content and local availability indicate potential for partial replacement of conventional protein ingredients.
 
Insects
 
Insects are an important component of traditional food systems among several ethnic communities in Northeast-India (Sangma et al., 2016). More than 200 edible insect species have been documented from the region, with substantial diversity reported from Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (Sangma et al., 2016; Thangjam et al., 2020). Edible insects can provide 20-76% protein (Table 1), along with lipids, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins (Xiaoming et al., 2010). However, nutritional-composition varies among species and developmental stages and chitin may affect nutrient digestibility (Table 2). Species-specific evaluation, processing and appropriate dietary inclusion rates are therefore required before wider use in aquafeeds. The commercial production of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) in Manipur further indicates the potential for insect-based feed resources in the region.
 
Processing of plant based alternative feed resources
 
Processing of terrestrial plant ingredients is important before their incorporation into fish feed because ANF and structural components such as fibre can limit nutrient availability, digestibility and feed utilization (Serra et al., 2024; Acharya et al., 2025). Plant ingredients may contain phytates, tannins, saponins, protease inhibitors and cyanogenic compounds, which can be reduced through appropriate processing (Hussain et al., 2024). Depending on the ingredient, methods such as drying, soaking, boiling and fermentation can improve nutrient availability, although their effectiveness varies with the ingredient, processing conditions and target ANF (Samtiya et al., 2020; Drew et al., 2007). Processing has demonstrated benefits for several resources identified in the region. Boiled taro leaf supported complete replacement of shrimp-meal protein in Nile tilapia without adverse effects on growth and survival (Mathia and Fotedar, 2012). Fermentation improved the feeding potential of mulberry, Sesbania and Moringa leaves, allowing higher inclusion or replacement levels than untreated forms (Ali et al., 2020; Raman et al., 2024; Manna et al., 2024). Detoxification of rubber seed meal also enabled its use in Labeo rohita, with up to 20% inclusion supporting growth and haematological health (Sharma et al., 2014).
 
Critical appraisal of feed resources
 
Northeast-India possesses diverse agricultural, horticultural and biological resources with potential as alternative aquafeed ingredients. However, availability and proximate composition alone do not establish suitability for fish feeding. Their practical value depends on nutrient availability, digestibility, palatability, ANF, processing requirements, safety, economic feasibility and evidence from fish-feeding-trials. Thus, the resources identified in this review should be considered at different levels of evidence rather than collectively regarded as established aquafeed ingredients. Several plant-based resources, particularly tuber leaves, Moringa, mulberry and other foliage, contain appreciable crude protein but may be limited by high fibre and ANF. Nutritional-composition can vary with species or variety, maturity, cultivation conditions, geographical origin and processing; therefore, values reported from other regions may not directly represent materials produced in Northeast-India. ANF may require appropriate processing and determination of safe inclusion levels, while chitin may constrain the utilization of insect meals. Drying, boiling and fermentation can reduce undesirable components, although excessive processing may cause nutrient losses. Palatability should also be considered because changes in taste and odour may affect feed intake. Feeding-trial evidence exists for some resources, but much of it originates outside Northeast-India given in Table 3. Reported benefits in growth, feed utilization or nutrient digestibility cannot directly validate regionally sourced materials because ingredient composition, processing, fish species, culture conditions and diet formulation may differ. Consequently, several plant resources, brewer’s by-products and insect resources identified in the region remain potential rather than established aquafeed ingredients. Economic feasibility is another consideration, as collection, transportation, drying, processing and storage may reduce the advantage of low-cost local resources. Seasonal availability and inconsistent supply may further constrain utilization. Future studies should therefore evaluate ANF, digestibility, processing, palatability, safe inclusion levels, growth, feed utilization and health responses in relevant cultured fish species. Overall, these resources are better considered candidates for partial incorporation into balanced diets rather than direct replacements for conventional ingredients, requiring integrated nutritional, feeding, safety and economic evaluation.

CONCLUSION

The demand for locally produced fish is expected to increase, driven by concerns regarding the health risks and nutritional quality of imported fish. Realizing this opportunity requires reliable supplies of formulated feeds and feed ingredients, supported by adequate local feed-milling capacity. Maximizing locally available resources can help improve feed affordability and adoption among farmers. Further development of processing technologies, particularly fermentation of plant-based ingredients, is needed to improve their nutritional quality and digestibility. Region-specific rearing and processing technologies for insect-based proteins, particularly black soldier fly larvae, also require further development. Integrating local resources, technological innovation and research-driven solutions is essential for developing a sustainable and self-reliant aquafeed sector in Northeast-India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Research was supported by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Governmnent of India.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
 
Informed consent
 
Ethics approval and informed consent were not applicable to this review article, as no experiments involving animals or humans were conducted.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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    Review Article

    Aquafeed Ingredient Resources of Northeast-India: A Review

    D
    Dauruhi Pde1,*
    B
    Bornalee Handique1
    A
    Arunjyoti Baruah1
    A
    Amjad K. Balange1
    1ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute Assam, Gogamukh, Dhemaji-787 035, Assam, India.

    ABSTRACT

    The availability and cost of feed ingredients are major constraints to aquaculture development in Northeast-India. The region possesses diverse agricultural, horticultural and biological resources, including plant materials, insects and agricultural and animal-processing by-products, with potential as alternative aquafeed resources. However, their nutritional value, antinutritional factors (ANF), processing requirements and feeding evidence vary considerably. Relevant literature on alternative feed resources available in Northeast-India was reviewed using scientific databases and government and institutional sources. Information on nutritional-composition, ANF, processing, availability and fish feeding-trials was compiled and critically evaluated. A wide range of plant, animal and insect-based resources were identified. Their nutritional-composition varied among resources, while fibre and ANF may limit direct use in fish diets. Processing methods such as boiling, drying, fermentation and detoxification can improve their suitability. Although feeding-trials have demonstrated the potential of several resources, most studies were conducted outside Northeast-India. Many regionally available resources therefore remain insufficiently validated through controlled fish feeding-trials using locally sourced materials.

    INTRODUCTION

    Aquaculture has emerged as an important sector for food and nutritional security, contributing substantially to global food supply and meeting the growing demand for animal-source protein (Garlock et al., 2022). In India, the sector has expanded considerably, contributing to food security, foreign exchange earnings and employment generation (Sahoo et al., 2023; Sidiq et al., 2024). In Northeast-India, aquaculture production remains substantially lower than the national average, resulting in considerable dependence on fish supplies from other parts of the country (Pde et al., 2025). Fish is an important source of animal protein in the region, with mean per capita consumption estimated at 11.54 kg in 2024-25 (HFS, 2025). The region aquaculture development is constrained by limited availability and high cost of feed ingredients, seed quality, species suitability and climatic constraints (Das, 2018; Debnath et al., 2020; Dutta et al., 2022; Lalrinsanga and Doley, 2022).
           
    Feed constitutes a major operational cost in fed aquaculture and its availability and affordability directly influence the economic viability of fish farming (Nates, 2016; Verdegem et al., 2021). Aquaculture in Northeast-India faces limited commercial aquafeed production and inadequate availability of raw materials. Conventional ingredients such as fishmeal, soybean meal, bran, oilcake are sourced from outside the region and transportation costs further increase feed prices (Upadhyay, 2022; Bhuyan et al., 2023; Singh et al., 2017).
           
    The region has considerable agricultural and biological resources that could contribute to local aquafeed production. Paddy is a principal crop cultivated in the region; provides rice bran and broken rice, while mustard oil cake is available as a by-product of oil extraction (De and Singh, 2017; Das, 2018). Other conventional plant ingredients, such as groundnut, maize and soybean, may have limited availability because of their competing use for human consumption (Das et al., 2018). The region also has several underutilized resources, including tuber leaves of sweet potato, taro and yam, Moringa, ferns and insects such as silkworm pupae (Thangjam et al., 2020; Verma et al., 2023). However, their nutritional-composition, ANF, processing requirements and feeding value vary considerably. This review aims to assess the availability, nutritional characteristics, processing requirements, economic feasibility and aquaculture potential of locally available feed resources in Northeast-India, while identifying key constraints and strategies for their effective incorporation into region-specific fish diets.
     
    Literature search and review methodology
     
    Literature for this review was identified through searches of major scientific databases and relevant scholarly, government and institutional sources. Searches used combinations of keywords related to aquafeed ingredients, alternative feed resources, nutritional-composition, feed processing, fish nutrition, aquaculture and Northeast-India. No publication-period restriction was applied and relevant literature available up to manuscript preparation was considered. Research articles, reviews, reports, statistical publications and selected reports addressing the availability, nutritional characteristics, processing, utilization, economic aspects or aquaculture potential of feed resources were included. The information was critically evaluated and descriptively synthesized to identify nutritional advantages, limitations, demonstrated applications, potential uses and research gaps.
     
    Feed ingredient scenario
     
    Fish farmers in Northeast-India obtain fishmeal raw materials mainly through the Jagiroad dry fish market in Morigaon district, Assam. Dry fish is imported from states including Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and subsequently distributed to wholesalers and retailers across the Northeastern states (Upadhyay, 2022). Common conventional aquafeed ingredients such as rice bran, soyabean meal, wheat bran and groundnut oil cake is scarce and are largely sourced from outside the region (Bhuyan et al., 2023). The prices of commercial feeds and feed ingredients are generally higher than the source states, partly due to transportation costs and geographical constraints resulting in insufficient agriculture production. Exploring locally available, non-conventional feed resources that do not compete with human food could therefore help reduce feed costs and improve ingredient supply.
     
    Agri-horticulture and plantation resources of Northeast-India
     
    Agriculture is a major livelihood activity in Northeast-India, with rice being the principal food crop and occupying more than 85% of the farming area (Dikshit and Dikshit, 2014). The region produced approximately 7.88 million tonnes of cereals in 2024-25, while the gross cropped area was about 6.39 million hectares in 2022-23 (NER Databank, 2026; Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, 2026). Oilseeds covered approximately 470.05 thousand hectares, with a production of about 399.88 thousand tonnes in 2024-25 (NER Databank, 2026). The agricultural production system is marked by a low cropping intensity, predominantly focused on subsistence farming and heavily reliant on mono-cropping practices. Natural rubber is a substantial plantation resources in the region covered approximately 2.58 lakh ha (NER Databank, 2026). Rubber seeds represent a potential underutilized resource, with an estimated annual production of about 45,000 tonnes in India, although only a small proportion is collected and utilized (MEF and CC, 2016). Tea is another major plantation crop, with approximately 1.45 lakh hectares under cultivation in the Northeastern states (NER Databank, 2026). These agricultural and plantation resources provide a diverse biomass base for exploring locally available alternative feed ingredients.
     
    Alternative feed ingredient resources
     
    The integration of new farming technologies has shifted aquaculture towards more intensive production systems, increasing resource requirements and production costs, particularly through greater reliance on formulated feeds (Araujo et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2023; Rodríguez-Hernández et al., 2025). Locally available, low-cost resources, including plant- and animal-based by-products, insects and other non-conventional plant materials, may help reduce dependence on conventional feed ingredients and can be used fresh, dried or processed for incorporation into aquafeeds (Cottrell et al., 2020). However, their nutritional value and suitability can vary with species, location, cultivation conditions and processing. Although the proximate composition of many non-conventional resources has been reported, their digestibility, palatability, bioavailability and ANF, particularly for region-specific resources, remain insufficiently evaluated. Region-specific assessment of these characteristics, together with controlled feeding-trials, is therefore necessary to determine their nutritional value, appropriate inclusion levels, effects on growth and feed utilization and potential limitations. Such evaluation is particularly important for identifying locally suitable ingredients that could help address the availability and high cost of conventional feed resources in Northeast-India. Although feeding-trials have been conducted for some resources discussed in this review, several remain insufficiently evaluated in controlled fish-feeding studies. The reported nutritional-composition, major ANF and available feeding evidence are summarized in Table 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The following locally available resources are discussed as potential alternative feed ingredients.

    Table 1: Nutritional-composition of potential non-conventional feed resources.



    Table 2: Reported antinutritional factors associated with potential non-conventional feed resources.



    Table 3: Reported feeding-trial evidence for selected non-conventional feed resources in cultured fish.

     
    Tuber leaf
     
    Tuber crops such as sweet potato, Colocasia, tapioca etc. are widely cultivated across the region in both hills and plains, either as mixed or sole crops. Their low input requirements and relative resistance to serious diseases and insect damage make them preferred risk-averse crops in the region (Jha and Deka, 2010). The leaves and other vegetative parts of these crops may therefore represent locally available resources for exploration as alternative aquafeed ingredients. Potential tuber-leaf resources are discussed below.
     
    Sweet potato leaf
     
    Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions, with both vines and roots used as food and livestock feed (Woolfe, 1992; Chauhan et al., 2021). Its leaves have potential as a plant-based feed resource due to their relatively high protein content (16.69-31.08%). The variation in nutritional-composition reported in Table 1 may reflect differences in cultivar, growing conditions and processing (Sun et al., 2014). The leaves also contain carotenoids, vitamins B2, C and E and minerals such as iron (Ishida, 2000).
     
    Cassava leaf
     
    Cassava (Manihot esculenta) leaves are used as vegetables and livestock feed and contain relatively high protein (19.7-38.1% dry matter), along with vitamins (B1, B2 and C), carotenoids and minerals (Parmar et al., 2017). Their nutritional-composition (Table 1) varies with cultivar, growing conditions and processing (Parmar et al., 2017). However, the presence of ANF (Table 2) necessitates appropriate processing and evaluation of safe inclusion levels before their use in aquafeeds.
     
    Yam leaf
     
    Twenty-eight species of yam (Dioscorea spp.) have been reported from Northeast-India (Sharma and Hore, 1995). Yam leaves contain appreciable protein and other nutrients (Table 1), indicating potential as a locally available feed resource (Akachukwu et al., 2020). However, variation among species and other factors may affect their nutritional value and suitability for aquafeed use, while several ANF reported are summarized in Table 2.
     
    Taro leaf
     
    Taro (Colocasia esculenta) corms, leaves, petioles and flowers are edible and are also used as livestock feed, particularly for pigs and poultry in rural areas (Thirugnanavel et al., 2015). The leaves contain appreciable nutrients, including 18-24% crude protein (Table 1), but also contain ANF (Table 2) that may affect nutrient utilization and therefore require further study before their incorporation into aquafeeds.
     
    Elephant foot yam leaf
     
    Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus sp.) is cultivated in several parts of India, including the Northeast, where its tuber, soft stems and leaves are used as vegetables (Singh et al., 2020). However, information on the nutritional-composition, ANF and suitability of its leaves as an aquafeed ingredient remains limited, warranting further characterization and feeding-trials to assess its potential.
     
    Other tubers leaves
     
    Several edible tubers and stems, including giant taro (Alocasia), tannia (Xanthosoma) and swamp taro (Cyrtosperma), are available in the region (Sharma and Hore, 1995; Thirugnanavel et al., 2015). The leaves of giant taro and tannia contain appreciable nutrients (Table 1), with crude protein reported at 24.0% and 23.1-58.5%, respectively (Kuo, 1967; de Souza Araújo et al., 2019). Their potential use in aquafeeds therefore requires consideration of ANF (Table 2), nutritional variation, processing requirements and feeding performance. Flemingia vestita, commercially cultivated in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills of Meghalaya, for its tubers, while its leaves remain largely underutilized and may warrant evaluation for their nutritional-composition and potential as an aquafeed ingredient.
     
    Mulberry leaf
     
    Mulberry (Morus alba) leaves are widely cultivated for the sericulture industry and represent an established biomass resource in the region. The leaves contain appreciable protein and other nutrients (Table 1), with crude protein reported at 15-32% (Srivastava et al., 2006; Sarkhel et al., 2022). Their availability as a sericulture by-product and nutritional-composition indicate potential as an alternative resource. However, variation in composition and the presence of ANF (Table 2) should be considered when evaluating their suitability for fish feed.
     
    Turi leaf
     
    Turi (Sesbania grandiflora) is a multipurpose, fast-growing tree whose flowers, leaves, seeds and wood are utilized for food, animal feed and other purposes (Ginting and Mirwandhono, 2021). The leaves contain 25.37% crude protein (Raman et al., 2024), with other proximate components reported in Table 1. However, ANF (Table 2) may limit their nutritional utilization, warranting evaluation of processing methods and appropriate inclusion levels.
     
    Drumstick leaf
     
    Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) leaves are valued for their nutritional content, particularly minerals, vitamins and bioactive compounds (Gopalakrishnan et al., 2016). The leaves contain appreciable protein, with reported crude protein content of 22-25% (González-Burgos et al., 2021; Chaudhary et al., 2023). Although the nutritional-composition (Table 1) indicates potential as an alternative feed resource, the presence of ANF (Table 2) may influence nutrient utilization.
     
    Squash or chayote
     
    Squash or chayote (Sechium edule) is extensively cultivated in the hilly parts of the region but remains largely underutilized (Verma et al., 2017). Its leaves contain 15.01-21.11% protein (Table 1), while fruits and stems contain 13.62% and 14.58%, respectively (Magouz et al., 2008; Lalthansanga and Samanta, 2015). However, variation among plant parts and the presence of ANF (Table 2) warrant evaluation of the nutrient utilization, inclusion rates and processing requirements.
     
    Cucumber leaf
     
    The Northeast region has diverse cucumber (Cucumis sativus) types with considerable morphological variation (Chakraborty et al., 2019). Cucumber leaves contain appreciable nutritional value (Table 1), with 26.87% crude protein (Magouz et al., 2008). However, the presence of ANF (Table 2) and limited feeding evidence warrant further evaluation of their processing requirements, nutrient utilization and appropriate dietary inclusion rates.
     
    Broad bean leaf
     
    Broad bean (Vicia faba) is cultivated in Northeast-India and consumed as a vegetable, while its protein-rich foliage is also used as cattle fodder (Juliana et al., 2012; Verma et al., 2016). The leaves contain 27.45% crude protein (Magouz et al., 2008) with other proximate components (Table 1) and ANF reported in Table 2. These characteristics support further evaluation of broad bean leaves as an alternative resource.
     
    Buckwheat leaf
     
    Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is cultivated in the high-altitude areas of Northeast-India as a staple food and is also used as livestock, poultry and pig feed (Misra et al., 2019). Its leaves contain 16-18% crude protein (Dziadek et al., 2018) along with other nutrients (Table 1). However, their relatively high fibre content and ANF (Table 2) may affect nutrient utilization and limit their inclusion in fish diets.
     
    East indian glory bower
     
    The East Indian glory bower (Clerodendrum colebrookianum) is a perennial shrub native to Northeast-India and valued for its medicinal (antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties) and culinary uses (Kalita et al., 2012; Kar et al., 2019; Deb et al., 2021). Its leaves contain 27.67% crude protein (Table 1), indicating potential as a locally available plant-based feed resource (Seal, 2011). However, the presence of ANF (Table 2) and limited information on its use in fish diets warrant further evaluation of its processing requirements, nutrient utilization and appropriate dietary inclusion rates.
     
    Brewers by-product
     
    Rice-brewing by-products are traditionally used as feed resources in Northeast-India. In Tripura, rice beer by-products have been incorporated with rice bran and mustard oil cake in fish feed mixtures, while they are also used as livestock feed, particularly for pigs (Das et al., 2013; Sonowal et al., 2021). The by-product contains 20-25% crude protein (Table 1) along with other nutrients (Barman et al., 2020; Lalhriatpuii and Patra, 2022). Millet-brewing by-products are similarly used as livestock feed in Meghalaya. Their existing use and availability indicate potential as an alternative resource, although nutritional-composition, inclusion-rate and processing require consideration.
     
    Animal processing byproduct
     
    Northeast-India has a predominantly non-vegetarian population, with substantial consumption of meat and fish products. Meat and fish processing generate by-products such as intestines and viscera that may serve as nutrient-rich animal protein sources for aquafeeds. Chicken viscera contain approximately 60.67% crude protein, while intestinal and fish viscera contain 53.77% and 38.8%, respectively (Table 1) (Pratyush et al., 2014; Giri et al., 2000). Their high protein content and local availability indicate potential for partial replacement of conventional protein ingredients.
     
    Insects
     
    Insects are an important component of traditional food systems among several ethnic communities in Northeast-India (Sangma et al., 2016). More than 200 edible insect species have been documented from the region, with substantial diversity reported from Nagaland, Manipur, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh (Sangma et al., 2016; Thangjam et al., 2020). Edible insects can provide 20-76% protein (Table 1), along with lipids, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins (Xiaoming et al., 2010). However, nutritional-composition varies among species and developmental stages and chitin may affect nutrient digestibility (Table 2). Species-specific evaluation, processing and appropriate dietary inclusion rates are therefore required before wider use in aquafeeds. The commercial production of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor) in Manipur further indicates the potential for insect-based feed resources in the region.
     
    Processing of plant based alternative feed resources
     
    Processing of terrestrial plant ingredients is important before their incorporation into fish feed because ANF and structural components such as fibre can limit nutrient availability, digestibility and feed utilization (Serra et al., 2024; Acharya et al., 2025). Plant ingredients may contain phytates, tannins, saponins, protease inhibitors and cyanogenic compounds, which can be reduced through appropriate processing (Hussain et al., 2024). Depending on the ingredient, methods such as drying, soaking, boiling and fermentation can improve nutrient availability, although their effectiveness varies with the ingredient, processing conditions and target ANF (Samtiya et al., 2020; Drew et al., 2007). Processing has demonstrated benefits for several resources identified in the region. Boiled taro leaf supported complete replacement of shrimp-meal protein in Nile tilapia without adverse effects on growth and survival (Mathia and Fotedar, 2012). Fermentation improved the feeding potential of mulberry, Sesbania and Moringa leaves, allowing higher inclusion or replacement levels than untreated forms (Ali et al., 2020; Raman et al., 2024; Manna et al., 2024). Detoxification of rubber seed meal also enabled its use in Labeo rohita, with up to 20% inclusion supporting growth and haematological health (Sharma et al., 2014).
     
    Critical appraisal of feed resources
     
    Northeast-India possesses diverse agricultural, horticultural and biological resources with potential as alternative aquafeed ingredients. However, availability and proximate composition alone do not establish suitability for fish feeding. Their practical value depends on nutrient availability, digestibility, palatability, ANF, processing requirements, safety, economic feasibility and evidence from fish-feeding-trials. Thus, the resources identified in this review should be considered at different levels of evidence rather than collectively regarded as established aquafeed ingredients. Several plant-based resources, particularly tuber leaves, Moringa, mulberry and other foliage, contain appreciable crude protein but may be limited by high fibre and ANF. Nutritional-composition can vary with species or variety, maturity, cultivation conditions, geographical origin and processing; therefore, values reported from other regions may not directly represent materials produced in Northeast-India. ANF may require appropriate processing and determination of safe inclusion levels, while chitin may constrain the utilization of insect meals. Drying, boiling and fermentation can reduce undesirable components, although excessive processing may cause nutrient losses. Palatability should also be considered because changes in taste and odour may affect feed intake. Feeding-trial evidence exists for some resources, but much of it originates outside Northeast-India given in Table 3. Reported benefits in growth, feed utilization or nutrient digestibility cannot directly validate regionally sourced materials because ingredient composition, processing, fish species, culture conditions and diet formulation may differ. Consequently, several plant resources, brewer’s by-products and insect resources identified in the region remain potential rather than established aquafeed ingredients. Economic feasibility is another consideration, as collection, transportation, drying, processing and storage may reduce the advantage of low-cost local resources. Seasonal availability and inconsistent supply may further constrain utilization. Future studies should therefore evaluate ANF, digestibility, processing, palatability, safe inclusion levels, growth, feed utilization and health responses in relevant cultured fish species. Overall, these resources are better considered candidates for partial incorporation into balanced diets rather than direct replacements for conventional ingredients, requiring integrated nutritional, feeding, safety and economic evaluation.

    CONCLUSION

    The demand for locally produced fish is expected to increase, driven by concerns regarding the health risks and nutritional quality of imported fish. Realizing this opportunity requires reliable supplies of formulated feeds and feed ingredients, supported by adequate local feed-milling capacity. Maximizing locally available resources can help improve feed affordability and adoption among farmers. Further development of processing technologies, particularly fermentation of plant-based ingredients, is needed to improve their nutritional quality and digestibility. Region-specific rearing and processing technologies for insect-based proteins, particularly black soldier fly larvae, also require further development. Integrating local resources, technological innovation and research-driven solutions is essential for developing a sustainable and self-reliant aquafeed sector in Northeast-India.

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

    Research was supported by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Governmnent of India.
     
    Disclaimers
     
    The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of their affiliated institutions. The authors are responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided, but do not accept any liability for any direct or indirect losses resulting from the use of this content.
     
    Informed consent
     
    Ethics approval and informed consent were not applicable to this review article, as no experiments involving animals or humans were conducted.

    CONFLICT OF INTEREST

    The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. No funding or sponsorship influenced the design of the study, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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