Fruit trees and grapevines are perennial crops cultivated in temperate climate zones, holding significant economic and nutritional importance. During their annual life cycle, the vegetative and generative growth period that begins in spring after winter dormancy represents a critical phase during which these plants are most vulnerable to environ-mental stress factors (Yadav, 2015; Matzneller et al., 2016; Charrier et al., 2018; Vitasse et al., 2018; Masaki, 2020). Sudden temperature drops and late frost events occurring during these sensitive periods-especially at crucial phenological stages such as flowering or early fruit/cluster formation-can cause severe damage to plant tissues and lead to substantial yield losses, thereby negatively impacting agricultural production. In addition to fruit crops, frost is also recognized as a major abiotic stress in ornamental plants such as roses, where it not only impairs flower opening and induces wilting but also leads to visible symptoms including leaf curling, chlorosis and reduced aesthetic value, ultimately lowering their commercial quality (Khaskheli et al., 2021).
       
The accelerating effects of global climate change have resulted in the advancement of spring phenology (Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Vitasse et al., 2018; Lamichhane et al., 2021) and an increase in unpredictable variability in weather patterns, complicating and challenging frost risk management (Augspurger, 2013; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Parker et al., 2021). The likelihood of frost events coinciding more frequently and severely with the early developmental stages during which plants are highly susceptible to frost has increased. In Türkiye, a key country for fruit and viticulture production, spring late frosts have become a recurrent problem with serious socio-economic consequences due to climate change (Kayan, 2025; Yıldırım, 2025). The severe frost events across Türkiye in April 2025 caused significant yield losses ranging from 50% to 80% in many fruit species such as apple, pear, apricot, almond, cherry, peach, hazelnut, mulberry, walnut and olive, as well as in vineyards, underscoring once again the destructive impact of frost on agricultural production and the urgency of addressing this risk (Anonymous, 2025; Kayan, 2025; Yıldırım, 2025).
       
Frost damage not only jeopardizes the current year’s yield but also adversely affects the physiological health, growth form and yield potential of trees and vines in subsequent years. This amplifies the importance of implementing effective, science-based post-frost management strategies. This paper comprehensively examines the physiological effects of spring late frosts on fruit trees and grapevines, discusses accurate assessment methods for frost damage and evaluates integrated cultural and management strategies that should be applied to accelerate plant recovery, restore health and secure next year’s yield in frost-affected orchards. The aim is to provide growers and agricultural professionals with a practical guide grounded in up-to-date scientific knowledge to optimize post-frost recovery and long-term yield management processes.
 
Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of frost damage in plant tissues
 
Damage in plant tissues exposed to freezing temperatures is the result of complex physiological and biochemical processes. These processes are triggered by the freezing of intracellular or intercellular water, which can lead to irreversible injuries in plant tissues (Yadav, 2015; Salazar-Gutiérrez  et al., 2014; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Choi et al., 2025). The main mechanisms of frost injury are detailed below:
 
Formation of extracellular ice crystals and dehydration
 
Freezing typically initiates in the extracellular spaces between plant cells. Water in these regions has a higher freezing point compared to intracellular water, facilitating ice nucleation more readily (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Yadav, 2015; Matzneller et al., 2016). The formation and expansion of extracellular ice crystals decrease the solute concentration and osmotic potential of the surrounding solution. To restore osmotic equilibrium, water inside the cells-where water potential is higher-passively moves through the plasma membrane toward the ice surfaces in the extracellular matrix (Yadav, 2015; Baek and Skinner, 2012; Matzneller et al., 2016; Faust and Herbold, 2017).                    

This water loss leads to severe dehydration within the cell, resulting in plasmolysis, where the plasma membrane detaches from the cell wall and shrinks (Matzneller et al., 2016; Baek and Skinner, 2012). Severe dehydration disrupts the structural and functional integrity of the plasma membrane, leading to cellular imbalances and a breakdown of metabolic activity (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017).
 
Intracellular ice formation and irreversible cellular injury
 
If the temperature drops rapidly or if plant tissues lose their ability to supercool (i.e., remain liquid below freezing point), ice crystals may form inside the cytoplasm (intracellular ice formation) (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Yadav, 2015; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Poni et al., 2022). Intracellular ice is generally lethal, as it causes direct physical rupture of the plasma membrane and organelle membranes (e.g., mitochondria and chloroplasts) (Salazar-Gutierrez  et al., 2014; Yadav, 2015; Faust and Herbold, 2017). This mechanical damage irreversibly disrupts vital cell functions and quickly leads to cell death.
 
Destabilization of the plasma membrane and electrolyte leakage
 
Low temperatures can alter the physical properties of membrane lipids, which are the main components of the plasma membrane. Under freezing conditions, the lipid bilayer transitions from a fluid-crystalline state to a more rigid and ordered gel phase (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Poni et al., 2022). This phase transition impairs membrane fluidity, permeability and integrity, compromising the membrane’s ability to regulate intracellular and extracellular exchange. Consequently, essential ions (e.g., K+ , Ca2+ ) and solutes (sugars, amino acids) leak out of the damaged membrane, a phenomenon known as electrolyte leakage (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Poni et al., 2022). The extent of electrolyte leakage is commonly used as a physiological indicator to assess the severity of frost injury.
 
Accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress
 
Abiotic stresses such as frost can disrupt metabolic activity and electron transport chains, leading to an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Masaki, 2020). ROS-including superoxide anions (O^2-), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and hydroxyl radicals (OH·)-are highly reactive molecules that cause macromolecular damage such as lipid peroxidation, protein denaturation and DNA injury, ultimately triggering cell death (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Masaki, 2020; Poni et al., 2022). Plants have developed defense mechanisms against ROS damage, including enzymatic antioxidants like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidases (POD), as well as non-enzymatic antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, glutathione and tocopherols (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Masaki, 2020). However, severe or prolonged freezing stress may overwhelm these systems, exacerbating oxidative stress-induced cell injury.
 
Disruption in the photosynthetic system and carbohydrate metabolism
 
Chloroplasts are among the most frost-sensitive organelles. Low temperatures can cause damage to chloroplast membranes, disrupt thylakoid structures and lead to the degradation of photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll and carotenoids (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Masaki, 2020). In particular, the activity of Photosystem II (PSII) is negatively affected by low temperatures, disrupting the photosynthetic electron transport chain. This results in reduced production of energy carrier molecules like ATP and NADPH and a decline in CO₂ assimilation (carbon fixation) (Baek and Skinner, 2012; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Poni et al., 2022). The decrease in photosynthesis severely limits the production of carbohydrates (sugars and starch), which are essential for plant growth, repair and energy storage. During post-frost recovery, plants require sufficient carbohydrate reserves and active photosynthetic function to regenerate new tissues and repair damaged ones.
 
Sensitivity differences based on phenological stage and plant organs
 
Plants’ sensitivity to frost varies significantly depending on species, cultivar, degree of cold hardiness and the phenological stage at which frost occurs (Rodrigo, 2000; Larsen, 2010; Yadav, 2015; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Charrier et al., 2018; Poni et al., 2022). During winter dormancy, plant organs exhibit high resistance to frost due to low water content and the accumulation of protective compounds (e.g., soluble sugars, proline, antifreeze proteins) (Baek and Skinner, 2012). However, with rising spring temperatures, plants undergo a dehardening process, increasing tissue water content and raising the freezing point, which significantly increases frost sensitivity (Larsen, 2010; Matzneller et al., 2016).
       
As plant development progresses, sensitivity to frost increases and the critical freezing temperatures (Tc) vary among different organs. In agreement with this, Rimpika et al., (2021) reported that insufficient winter chill leads to irregular flowering, poor pollination and even complete crop failure in temperate fruit trees, highlighting the increasing vulnerability of traditional production areas. The most sensitive phenological stages are typically bud break, flowering and early fruit/cluster development (Rodrigo, 2000; Larsen, 2010; Baek and Skinner, 2012; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018). For instance, in apples, critical temperatures for flower organs vary between -2.2^oC and -3.7^oC depending on the phenological stage, but temperatures below -2^oC during full bloom can cause severe damage (Larsen, 2010; Masaki, 2020). In pears, the king bloom (first-opening flowers in the cluster) is usually the most vulnerable (Larsen, 2010).
 
Flower buds and flowers
 
Reproductive organs are the most frost-sensitive plant parts due to their high water content and thin membranes (Rodrigo, 2000; Larsen, 2010). During flowering, pistils, stamens and petals can freeze easily. Freezing of the pistil is typically indicated by internal browning, which directly prevents fertilization and results in complete loss of fruit set (Larsen, 2010; Faust and Herbold, 2017; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018; Charrier et al., 2018; Poni et al., 2022). Sensitivity to frost during flowering varies greatly among different fruit species and cultivars.
 
Young fruits/clusters
 
Young fruits and grape clusters developing after flowering are also highly susceptible to frost damage (Larsen, 2010; Yıldırım, 2025). Frosted young fruits may exhibit tissue necrosis, deformities (frost rings), or complete abscission (Larsen, 2010). In cherries, young fruits may die completely (Larsen, 2010). In peaches, frost-damaged young fruits may develop into misshapen fruits that fail to grow beyond the size of a walnut (Larsen, 2010). In apples and pears, frost can lead to the formation of characteristic “frost rings” on the fruit surface, reducing fruit quality (Larsen, 2010). In grapevines, the fresh shoots and cluster primordia that carry that season’s crop are extremely frost-sensitive; their damage often means the total loss of yield for that year (Larsen, 2010; Poni et al., 2022).
 
Leaves and shoots
 
Young, soft leaves and shoot tips during active growth are also sensitive to frost. Freezing can cause tissue necrosis, darkening and stunted growth (Larsen, 2010; Yadav, 2015; Lowder, 2025). Damage to leaf tissues directly reduces the plant’s photosynthetic capacity, limiting energy production and weakening recovery ability.
 
Post-frost damage assessment: Methods and practical approaches
 
Following a frost event, timely and accurate assessment of the extent, severity and spatial distribution of damage across an orchard or vineyard is the first and most critical step in planning effective post-frost management strategies. A detailed and systematic damage assessment helps prevent unnecessary and costly interventions, ensures optimal use of available resources and allows for the identification of appropriate cultural practices to support plant recovery.
 
Timing of assessment
 
The full extent of frost damage does not usually become apparent immediately after the event. It often requires a period during which affected tissues undergo desiccation and discoloration (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025). Therefore, it is recommended to wait approximately 24 to 48 hours-or in some cases, several days-before conducting a compre-hensive assessment. This delay allows for the manifestation of visual symptoms such as browning and blackening of damaged tissues (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025).
 
Systematic sampling
 
To accurately evaluate frost injury, samples should be collected systematically from different zones within the orchard or vineyard, including varying elevations, canopy layers and orientations (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025). Special attention should be given to frost-prone areas such as depressions, cold air accumulation zones and poorly ventilated sections. Given that frost susceptibility varies among fruit species, cultivars and even clones within the same cultivar, separate assessments should be conducted for each type (Larsen, 2010; Yadav, 2015; Lowder, 2025).
 
Visual ýnspection and tissue evaluation
 
Initial assessment involves observing external symptoms of frost injury on plant organs, such as shriveling, discoloration, necrosis and tissue collapse (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025). This is followed by anatomical evaluation, where cross- or longitudinal-sections of buds, flowers, young fruits, shoots, or branches are made using sharp tools (e.g., razor blade, scalpel, or dissecting scissors) (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025). The color of the exposed tissue surfaces is examined: healthy tissues typically appear bright green, yellowish, or creamy, while frost-damaged or necrotic tissues are brown, grayish, or blackened (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025). Use of a hand lens or dissecting microscope is recommended for detailed inspection of small tissues (Larsen, 2010).
 
Bud evaluation
 
Bud dissection involves examining the color of internal floral or foliar primordia. In grapevines, where compound buds contain primary, secondary and tertiary meristems, each bud component must be evaluated individually (Pool and Martinson, 2011; Essary, 2023). As suggested by Pool and Martinson (2011) and Essary (2023), samples can be taken from unpruned canes and successive transverse sections can be made to assess the viability of primary, secondary and tertiary buds. The percentage of primary bud mortality directly influences pruning strategy.
 
• 0-15% mortality
 
   Minimal damage; standard pruning is recommended to maintain balanced vine structure and optimize fruit quality.
 
• 15-80% mortality
 
   Significant loss of primary buds; leaving more buds during pruning may enhance the likelihood of fruit production from secondary and even tertiary buds.
 
• Over 80% mortality
 
Extensive damage; likelihood of structural injury (e.g., splits or discoloration in trunks or shoots) increases. Minimal pruning is advised to reduce stress and promote vine survival. In cases of severe structural damage, vine removal and replanting may be necessary (Lowder, 2025).
 
Flower assessment
 
The pistil, being the most frost-sensitive part of the flower, is dissected to evaluate internal discoloration. Browning of the pistil is a definitive indicator of frost damage (Larsen, 2010).
 
Young fruit/cluster assessment
 
In immature fruits, cross-sections are examined for internal darkening, particularly around the seed cavity, which signifies frost injury. In vineyards, necrotic lesions on developing inflorescences are also assessed.
 
Shoot, cane, trunk and cordon evaluation
 
In young shoots, visual symptoms such as blackening and wilting are assessed. In thicker woody tissues (branches, cordons, trunks), the bark is gently scraped to observe cambial layer vitality through color changes or the presence of cracks (Larsen, 2010; Lowder, 2025). Cracks on grapevine cordons and trunks may serve as entry points for pathogens and should be carefully monitored (Lowder, 2025).
 
Estimation of damage percentage and expected yield loss
 
Based on sampling results, the percentage of frost damage and the estimated yield loss across the orchard or vineyard is calculated. These estimates are crucial for determining subsequent management decisions such as pruning severity or fertilization schedules (Larsen, 2010). Reference to species- and cultivar-specific critical temperature thresholds (Murray, 2011) aids in interpreting the potential extent of damage caused by the recorded temperature drops.
 
Integrated recovery and yield management strategies following frost damage
 
The restoration of plant health after frost injury necessitates the integrated implementation of various cultural and management strategies aimed at accelerating physiological recovery and securing the yield potential for the upcoming growing season. These strategies are designed to enhance plant resilience to stress, remove or repair damaged tissues, stimulate new growth and fruit bud initiation and protect the plant from secondary stress factors.
 
Pruning for removal of damaged tissues and structural rehabilitation
 
Post-frost pruning is a critical intervention in the recovery of frost-damaged fruit trees and grapevines. The main objectives and recommended post-frost pruning strategies include the following:
 
Objectives
 
The primary goals are: To remove completely frozen, necrotic, or irreversibly damaged branches, shoots, cordons and other plant organs; to eliminate necrotic and infected tissues that serve as potential entry points for pathogens and pests; to redirect the plant’s limited energy reserves to vital and regenerative tissues; and to encourage new shoot emergence from latent or secondary buds, thus reconstructing and rebalancing the plant’s architecture (Poni et al., 2022; Lowder, 2025).
 
Timing
 
The optimal timing for pruning is when the full extent of frost injury has become apparent and the plant begins to show signs of renewed growth (Poni et al., 2022). This period typically occurs several weeks after the frost event. Pruning too early may exacerbate energy depletion during a phase when the plant is already under stress, thereby delaying recovery. However, clearly necrotic and desiccated tissues should be removed as soon as the plant resumes metabolic activity. In grapevines, especially in regions prone to late spring frosts, the application of delayed winter pruning is an effective strategy to reduce the risk of damage to primary buds and enhance the potential for fruiting from secondary buds in case of frost injury (Poni et al., 2022; Lowder, 2025).
 
Pruning intensity and technique
 
The severity of pruning must be adjusted according to the extent of frost injury, as well as the species, age and vigor of the affected plants. In cases of minor damage, pruning may be limited to the removal of scorched shoot tips or injured flower and fruit clusters. In contrast, severe frost injury may require cuts to be made deeper into the main scaffold branches or trunk, back to the point where healthy, viable tissue is observed (Poni et al., 2022). Cuts should be made with clean, sharp tools and should avoid slicing through dead tissue. Large pruning wounds should be protected with appropriate wound sealants to prevent pathogen intrusion. In young trees or vines severely damaged by frost, more radical pruning approaches such as crown renewal or cane retraining from the base may be necessary to regenerate the canopy or vine structure (Poni et al., 2022; Lowder, 2025).
 
Specific pruning approaches in grapevines
 
In grapevines, if primary buds are killed by frost, emergence from secondary and tertiary buds becomes critical. Based on an assessment of primary bud mortality, the pruning strategy should be adjusted accordingly (Pool and Martinson, 2011; Poni et al., 2022; Essary, 2023). When a high rate of primary bud death is detected, pruning intensity is reduced and more nodes are retained to facilitate fruiting from secondary buds. A study by Keller and Mills (2007) demonstrated that both the timing and severity of post-frost pruning significantly affect the recovery and productivity of cold-injured Merlot vines. Specifically, delayed pruning and increased node retention improved yield outcomes. Following the removal of dead canes and trunks, efforts should be directed toward regenerating new cordons or trunks (Poni et al., 2022). The application of copper-based fungicides such as copper sulfate immediately after pruning can help prevent pathogen entry through wound sites (Poni et al., 2022). In fruit trees (apple, pear, peach, apricot) and grapevines, the use of Bordeaux mixture or similar copper formulations is a common and effective practice to minimize pruning-related disease incidence.
 
Optimization of water and nutrient management and supportive practices
 
Frost stress can impair the root system and vascular tissues of plants, negatively affecting water and nutrient uptake. In the post-frost period, the rapid recovery of the plant, the restoration of metabolic activity necessary for new growth and the development of next season’s fruit buds depend critically on the availability of balanced and accessible water and nutrient resources (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Larsen, 2010; Yadav, 2015).
 
Irrigation
 
To prevent water stress and support root activity in frost-damaged plants, soil moisture levels should be regularly monitored and irrigation should be applied judiciously according to the plant’s needs (Rai et al., 2015). Adequate soil moisture facilitates water and nutrient uptake by the roots, supports photosynthetic processes and promotes new shoot development. However, over-irrigation must be avoided as it can reduce soil aeration, increase the risk of root rot and other diseases and exacerbate overall plant stress. Maintaining moist soil before or during frost-prone nights can mitigate freeze damage by enhancing latent heat release from the soil (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Yadav, 2015). On the other hand, post-frost irrigation should avoid wetting the foliage at night, as evaporation-induced surface cooling may aggravate leaf damage (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005).
 
Fertilization
 
Following frost events, additional nutrient support may be necessary to promote plant recovery and regrowth. A balanced fertilization program should be implemented to support new tissue formation, vegetative development and enhanced stress tolerance (Rai et al., 2015). Macronutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are vital for shoot and root development. However, excessive nitrogen can lead to the formation of weak shoots with poor cold hardiness and should be applied cautiously (Yadav, 2015). Potassium (K) plays a critical role in water regulation, photosynthesis and stress tolerance and it supports plant recovery following frost injury (Rai et al., 2015). Micronutrients such as zinc (Zn), boron (B) and iron (Fe) are also essential for metabolic processes and growth and their deficiencies can delay recovery. Nutrient supplementation should be based on soil analysis. Foliar application may be particularly effective in rapidly supplying essential nutrients independent of soil conditions (Rai et al., 2015; Yadav, 2015).
 
Soil management
 
Healthy soil structure, adequate organic matter content and proper drainage support root function and enhance the plant’s ability to cope with post-frost stress. Soil compaction should be avoided and soil tillage should be minimized. Tillage operations should be avoided during frost-risk periods, as tilled soils with loose structure have lower heat capacity compared to firm and moist soils and tend to cool down more rapidly during the night (Yadav, 2015). This can result in a sharper and earlier drop in surface temperature, increasing the risk of frost injury.
 
Integrated management against ýncreased pest and disease risk
 
Frost stress weakens plants physiologically and increases their vulnerability to diseases and pests (Yadav, 2015). Frost-damaged tissues (wounds, cracks, necrotic areas) provide entry points for various fungal and bacterial pathogens. Therefore, regular monitoring and proactive protection against increased pest and disease threats are crucial in the post-frost period.
 
Monitoring and early diagnosis
 
After frost events, wounds, necrotic tissues, weakened plants and newly emerging tender shoots should be carefully monitored for signs of disease and pest infestation (Yadav, 2015; Lowder, 2025). In grapevines, for instance, frost-induced cracks in cordons and trunks pose a significant risk for trunk pathogens such as Botryosphaeria spp. and crown gall (Agrobacterium vitis) (Lowder, 2025).
 
Integrated pest management (Ipm) approach
 
Upon detection of any pest or disease symptoms, appropriate interventions should be applied based on IPM principles. This includes cultural practices (e.g., removal and destruction of infected tissues), biological control methods and, when necessary, targeted chemical treatments. The application of protective fungicides or bactericides to pruning wounds can help prevent pathogen entry. Frost-weakened plants may attract certain pests, so pest monitoring and timely control should not be overlooked.
 
Potential role of biostimulants and plant growth regulators in the recovery process
 
Biostimulants are substances or microorganisms that enhance plant nutrient use efficiency, stress tolerance and/or crop quality independently of their nutrient content (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Du Jardin, 2015; García-García  et al., 2020). The use of biostimulants during the post-frost recovery period holds great potential for accelerating physiological restoration.
 
Modes of action
 
Biostimulants can modulate plant stress responses, activate antioxidant defense systems to reduce oxidative damage, stimulate root and shoot growth, optimize nutrient uptake and utilization, enhance photosynthetic efficiency and support cellular repair mechanisms (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Du Jardin, 2015; García-García  et al., 2020). Biostimulant groups with promising post-frost applications include amino acids, seaweed extracts, humic and fulvic acids and beneficial microorganisms (e.g., mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria - PGPRs). Amino acids serve as building blocks for protein synthesis and also help in osmotic regulation. Seaweed extracts contain natural plant hormones (e.g., cytokinins), polysaccharides and minerals that enhance growth and stress tolerance. Humic and fulvic acids improve soil structure, chelate nutrients and stimulate root development.
 
Application methods
 
Biostimulants can be applied via foliar sprays or soil applications (via irrigation or in solid form) (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Du Jardin, 2015). Foliar applications offer rapid delivery of nutrients and active compounds, making them beneficial for immediate support after frost events. Soil applications, on the other hand, promote long-term recovery by strengthening root systems and improving soil health.
 
Plant growth regulators (PGRs)
 
In cases of severe frost damage, plant growth regulators may be used to initiate or accelerate vegetative regrowth (Yadav, 2015; Drepper et al., 2021). Cytokinins and gibberellins, for example, can stimulate bud break and shoot elongation. However, the use of PGRs requires careful consideration of species, cultivar, plant physiological status and precise dosage. Improper or excessive use may disturb plant hormonal balance and lead to adverse outcomes. Therefore, consulting with an experienced advisor is strongly recommended when applying PGRs.
 
Other supporting cultural practices
 
Optimizing the environmental conditions of the plant after frost damage is critical to support the recovery process.
 
Mulching
 
Application of organic or inorganic mulch around tree bases or along vineyard rows can help conserve soil moisture, thereby reducing water stress, moderating soil temperature and stimulating root activity-all of which contribute to plant recovery (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Yadav, 2015; Drepper et al., 2021). Moreover, mulching assists with weed control, minimizing competition for nutrients and water and further promoting recovery.
 
Windbreaks
 
For young or sensitive plants, installing windbreak barriers can reduce the desiccating effects of wind, minimize water loss from leaves and shoots and help establish a more stable microclimate that favors plant recuperation.
 
Managing next season’s yield potential and long-term strategies
 
The primary goal of post-frost management is not only to mitigate the current damage but also to ensure healthy and productive crops in subsequent growing seasons.
 
Supporting fruit bud formation
 
In many fruit trees and grapevines, flower (fruit) buds differentiate during the preceding growing season. Thus, sufficient and healthy vegetative growth after frost damage is vital for enabling photosynthesis, replenishing carbohydrate reserves and ultimately ensuring the formation of adequate quantity and quality of fruit buds for the next season (Yadav, 2015; Bigler and Bugmann, 2018). Practices such as balanced fertilization, adequate irrigation, effective pest and disease management and proper pruning directly influence this process.
 
Managing biennial bearing (alternate bearing)
 
Severe frost damage can lead to an “off-year,” where the plant prioritizes recovery and vegetative development, potentially triggering an excessive flowering and fruit load in the subsequent “on-year.” This tendency toward biennial bearing (alternation) can be intensified by such stress events (Yadav, 2015). To manage this, strategic flower or fruit thinning in the following season should be planned to balance crop load and prevent plant exhaustion caused by overbearing.
 
Structural recovery
 
In cases of severe frost injury, it may take several years for trees or vines to fully regain their original form and productivity (Keller and Mills, 2007). During this period, ensuring the long-term health and sustainable productivity of the plant should be a top priority.
 
Long-term risk mitigation
 
To reduce the risk of future frost damage, long-term strategies should be considered. These include selecting and cultivating fruit varieties and rootstocks that are better adapted to the regional climate and more tolerant to frost (Yadav, 2015). The use of advanced frost forecasting and early warning systems, along with feasibility studies and implementation of active frost protection methods (e.g., sprinkler irrigation, wind machines, heaters, fogging), is crucial for minimizing the potential impact of future frost events (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Drepper et al., 2022). Integrating passive frost protection strategies (e.g., site selection, pre-winter plant nutrition) with active protection methods forms a comprehensive frost risk management plan.
       
Spring late frosts, exacerbated by global climate change, increasingly pose a serious and complex threat to fruit and vineyard cultivation in temperate climates. The widespread and severe frost events observed in recent years in Türkiye have clearly demonstrated the potentially devastating impacts of this climatic risk on agricultural production and highlighted the urgent need for effective post-frost management. Understanding the complex physiological and biochemical mechanisms of frost damage in plants-from cellular level effects to the overall health and reproductive capacity of the plant-is essential.
       
The integrated management strategies presented in this review-including accurate post-frost damage assessment, appropriate pruning techniques, optimized water and nutrient management, proactive pest and disease control, use of biostimulants and preparations for the following growing season-offer a scientifically based approach to accelerate plant recovery, restore plant health and minimize the long-term effects of frost injury. In particular, biostimulants hold promising potential in post-frost recovery by enhancing the plant’s natural defense mechanisms and stress tolerance, supporting cellular repair processes and promoting new growth. Foliar applications during the post-frost period facilitate the direct uptake of essential nutrients and compounds necessary for rapid recovery. Practices such as late winter pruning in vineyards are recognized as effective strategies for managing frost risk and securing yield from secondary buds after frost damage (Keller and Mills, 2007; Poni et al., 2022; Lowder, 2025). Experimental studies by these authors have demonstrated the effects of pruning severity after frost on the recovery and productivity of cold-damaged vines, underscoring the critical role of management strategies in modulating plant responses.
       
However, detailed laboratory and field-level protocols for the “rapid recovery, revitalization and return to pre-damage developmental status” of frost-affected plants remain scarce in the literature (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005). This highlights the need for deeper investigation into the molecular, genetic and biochemical mechanisms underlying physiological recovery processes and for developing targeted interventions and practical protocols to accelerate these processes. Future research should focus on changes in plant metabolism after frost, stress signaling pathways and the genetic and epigenetic mechanisms facilitating recovery, thereby contributing to the development of more effective and scientifically grounded recovery strategies.
       
For growers in Türkiye, adapting and integrating these summarized strategies according to local ecological conditions, soil types, affected plant species/cultivars and specific characteristics of frost damage is of great importance. Long-term risk mitigation should include the selection of frost-tolerant varieties and rootstocks, improved frost forecasting and early warning systems and the widespread adoption of active frost protection methods such as irrigation and wind machines (Snyder and de Melo-Abreu, 2005; Yadav, 2015). The combination of an effective post-frost management plan with forward-looking risk reduction strategies is critical to minimizing the adverse effects of spring late frosts on agricultural production and enhancing the resilience and sustainability of the fruit and vineyard sectors. Cooperation and knowledge exchange among growers, agricultural advisors and researchers are essential for the adoption of best practices and the development of region-specific solutions.

Spring late frosts represent a significant and increasing threat to fruit trees and vineyard cultivation globally. Understanding the physiological and biochemical mechanisms of frost damage and accurately assessing the extent of injury form the foundation for effective post-frost management strategies. These strategies encompass an integrated suite of cultural practices, including the removal of frozen tissues by pruning, optimization of water and nutrient management, management of increased pest and disease risks, use of biostimulants and potentially growth regulators and securing the yield potential for the following season. Although existing literature provides valuable information on cultural and management strategies applicable after frost, there is a clear need for further research to establish specific and detailed application protocols to accelerate physiological recovery in plants. Increasing the scientific knowledge in this field will facilitate the development of more effective and targeted post-frost interventions. The integration of proactive post-frost management with long-term adaptation strategies to climate change is critical to mitigating the negative impacts of spring late frosts on agricultural production and improving the resilience and sustainability of fruit and vineyard sectors. Collaboration among growers, advisors and researchers remains the most effective path to overcoming this challenging climatic risk.
 

The author acknowledges no external funding or support for the preparation of this review article. The author would like to thank all the researchers whose work was referenced in this manuscript.
 
Disclaimers
 
The views and conclusions expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the author’s affiliated institutions. The author is responsible for the accuracy and completeness of the information provided within this review.
 
Informed consent
 
This is a review article based on published literature and does not involve any human or animal participants, therefore informed consent is not applicable.

The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article. The preparation of the manuscript was not influenced by any commercial or financial relationships.