Many modifications have been made in the process of transforming agriculture into the commercial farming of today, all with the goal of achieving national economic security and self-sufficiency in production. Science has completely changed how crop management is done. Precision agriculture, which uses robotics and GPS to reduce labor-intensive farming, has become more complex and less labor-intensive
(Kushwaha, 2019). However, homestead agriculture has always been a kind of farming for the family in and around the farmer’s residences, running concurrently with this. In many states and/or nations, homestead farming still dominates the agricultural landscape. According to
Chandrashekara and Baiju (2010), tropical home gardens are conventional agroforestry systems with a complicated structure and a variety of uses. A homegarden is a pluralistic land use order in the humid tropics and as a land management system; it has been well-developed in south, south-east Asia and Latin America
(Kumar, 2015). They are regarded as ‘epitomes of sustainability’ throughout the tropics
(Torquebiau, 1992) and also considered as microenvironments within the agroecosystem to preserve the function and resilience of the larger ecosystem
(Engels, 2001).
The ecological characters/functions
(Soemarwoto and Soemarwoto, 1984), structural diversity
(Blanckaert et al., 2004), sustainable agroforestry nature
(Kumar and Nair, 2006), litter and nutrient dynamics
(Upadhyaya et al., 2012), carbon sequestration potential
(Kumar, 2006), enigmatic nature
(Kumar and Nair, 2004), germplasm banks and key sites for domestication
(Huai and Hamilton, 2009), multi faceted land use
(John, 2014) etc. of varying homesteads have been documented. As these systems are affirmed as the origin of agriculture in a region
(Gorman, 1971) and are described as ‘steady-state’ systems by ecologists
(Kumar and Nair, 2004). The ensuing changes in climatic events and the impacts on agricultural production have necessitated an analysis of homestead production units for their adaptability and ability for agrarian livelihood security. An attempt has been made in this review to project the unique resilient nature of homesteads from the available literature. For an easy understanding, the first part of the review discusses the history, definitions, concept and characteristics and the later part focusses on the resilient nature of the homesteads.
Methodology
Homestead Agro forestry system is a unique feature of Kerala. For the proper understanding and exploitation of knowledge about Agroforestry and Homesteads, we have collected more than 300 review articles from online and offline sources. After preliminary screening, 200-250 papers were selected which were found relevant for the topic. The papers were assorted based on the existing information available and characteristics of homestead and correlated with each other.
Homesteads revisited
Homestead farming or home garden is an age-old farming practice prevalent in various parts of the world.
Kumar and Nair (2004) see home gardens as the oldest land use activity, next only to shifting cultivation. Evidences show that this farming has been practised from time immemorial.. For instance, Indian epics
Mahabharata and
Ramayana, mentioned the presence of
Ashok Vatika (Puri and Nair, 2004). It is also referred to in the great book of Hindu aesthetics,
Kamasutra by
Vatsyayana which was written during 3
rd to 4
th century AD and also in the travelogue by the Muslim traveller, Ibn Battuta (1325-1354) who described the cultivation of
kalpavriksha (
Cocos nucifera) and black pepper (
Piper nigrum) along the houses of Malabar coast of Kerala
(Randhawa, 1980).
Varied definitions for homestead farming have been reported and a few are discussed here.
Nair and Sreedharan (1986) defined homestead as an operational farm unit in which a number of crops (inluding tree crops) are grown with livestock, poultry and/or fish production mainly for the purpose of satisfying the farmer’s basic needs while
Karyono (1990) described homegarden as a clearly bounded piece of land cultivated with a diverse mixture of annual and perennial crops and on which a house is built. According to
Alam and Furukawa (2010), this farming system involves a deliberate planting and management of multipurpose trees and shrubs in intimate association with annual and perennial agricultural crops and invariably, livestock, within the compounds of individual houses. All definitions emanate the fact that it is farming by the family, for the family and within the household premises.
Concepts and key characteristics
Homesteads are agroforestry systems within the household premises. The motto of the homestead is ‘a mixed farm with diversified enterprises where dependence is not on a single enterprise’.
Ninez (1987) has described the key characteristics of homesteads (Table 1) as follows:
Nevertheless,
Isaac et al., (2019) based on the participatory analysis of the homesteads in southern Kerala, have reported that the present day homesteads have come a long way from the traditional ones. Nowadays they are more complex and diversified in tune with the advances in agricultural technologies with the inclusion of apiary, fish ponds, azolla and biogas units, composting units, mushroom sheds, terrace gardens, vertical farming units, polyhouse/rain shelters, water harvesting structures
etc.
Resilience
Recognition of the impending threats that climate change could have on agricultural production has sparked a desire among stakeholders to strengthen the resilience of agricultural systems
(Lin, 2011). The concept has been studied and reported in a wide range of ecosystems, from coral reefs to forests
(Chapin et al., 2004), but documentary evidences in homestead farming systems are comparatively less.
Resilience can be conceptualized as the ability of farming systems to cope with challenges
(Bullock et al., 2017). According to
Cambridge University Press (2008), it is the quality of being able to return quickly to a previous good state after problems.
Nelson et al., (2007) defined climate resilience as the ability to adapt, reorganize and evolve into more desirable configurations that improve the sustainability of the system, leaving it better prepared for future climate change impacts.
Features that make homesteads resilient
Agroforestry characteristics
The different features of an agroforestry that makes homestead resilient include ecological attributes, environmental attributes, multi-storeyed configuration, species diversity (Table 2).
Number of species may vary from one country to another and Table 3 shows the species diversity of selected countries/state.
Climate regulation
Homestead systems have the potential to regulate the climate on a local and global scale. On the local level, the dense vertical structure of trees helps in controlling microclimatic fluctuations by influencing the air temperature, radiation flux, soil moisture and wind speed
(Rao et al., 2007) and macroclimate regulation is through carbon (C) sequestration as the woody biomass offers potential for C storage
(Mohri et al., 2013).
Regulation of microclimate
The homegardens are reported to have more favourable microenvironments with lower soil and atmospheric temperature and higher relative humidity than the open environment
(Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999). This results in less soil evapotranspiration and more soil water retention which in turn enhances the soil biological activity.
Shade trees buffer high and low air temperatures by as much as 5°C
(Beer et al., 1998). Similarly, soil temperature variation beneath tree canopies and in open soil temperatures was 2-3.5°C
(Isaac, 2001), the higher temperatures being in the open. Significantly lower air temperature (0.31-0.90°C) was observed inside the homegarden in summer compared to outside the homegardens in China
(Liu et al., 2019). Relative Light Interception at various strata in homegarden of Cihampelas, West Java was studied by
Christanty (1981) and observed 6, 10, 64 and 20% of light interception in bottom, third, second and top layer, respectively.
Regulation of macroclimate
Global warming effects are changing the rhythms of climate that all living things have come to rely on. Carbon dioxide is regarded as the major contributor to the greenhouse effects and hence strategies to reduce the concentration in the atmosphere is coveted. The forest-like structure and composition endorse high C sequestration potential to the homegardens
(Kumar, 2006).
Albrecht and Kandji (2003) explicated that the quantity of carbon stored is dependent on many factors like structure and function of the components and nature of the system which are controlled by environmental variables. For example, the average carbon storage in semiarid, subhumid, humid and temperate agroforestry practices has been been estimated to be 9, 21, 50 and 63 Mg C ha
-1 (Schroeder, 1994). The influence of a variable like elevation on carbon sequestration has studied by many
(Birhane et al., 2020).
According to
Nair et al., (2010), on an average 0.29- 15.21 Mg C ha
-1 yr
-1 is stored in trees and 30 - 300 Mg C ha
-1 yr
-1 in soil. Carbon sequestration potential agroforestry homegarden in different elevations in southern Ethiopia studied by
Birhane et al., (2020) led to the observation that the homegradens in the upper elevations showed higher biomass C and soil organic carbon than that in the lower elevation.
Soil management
Soil health and sustainable management are crucial for any successful crop production programme. The vulnerability of soil to the different management practices brings about changes in its properties which in the long term affect the productive capacity. Soil resilience is defined as the capacity of the soil to recover its functional and structural integrity after disturbances
(Herrick and Wander, 1998). It is a key soil attribute that describes the capacity of the soil to recover from continuous and persistent anthropogenic stresses and in its absence, all managed soils would have ceased to produce ecosystem services long ago
(Blanco-Canqui and Lal, 2010).
Increased organic matter and soil organisms
Magdoff and Weil (2004) reported improvements in water retention capacity, infiltration and surface soil aggregation with increased organic matter. The various sources of organic materials added in homesteads include, leaf litter, crop residues, tree loppings, root sloughings and exudates, household biowastes, animal excreta, poultry droppings
etc. Intensive use of organic manures and resource flow among the components ensure the resilience in homesteads
(Isaac et al., 2019).
Cycling of nutrients
Nutrient cycling is more efficient in multistrata agroforestry systems than in monoculture plantations
(Nair et al., 1999). Presence of trees and shrubs especially N fixing, with deep root system and mycorrhizal associations ensure an almost closed nutrient cycling pathway in the system.
Replenishment of nutrients taken up or removed by the crops from soil forms the basis for soil nutrient management. An
in situ mechanism of nutrient recycling is the most opted solution for sustained production. Nutrient cycling is inherent to homesteads. Dynamics of litter production, decomposition and subsequent bioelement release in the soil endow sustainability to homesteads
(Heal et al., 1997).
Trees (throughfall, litter fall and stem flow), crop residues, N fixing trees, animal/poultry manures and household biowastes add nutrient inputs to the soil nutrient pool in addition to organic matter enrichment. Nutrient cycling in homesteads is said to be closed
(Nair et al., 1999) and efficient
(Gajaseni and Gajaseni, 1999).
Abraham (1997) investigated the annual nutrient additions (litterfall, throughfall, stem flow and organic manures) and removal in a 0.48 ha homestead and reported a net gain of 33.66, 16.18 and 45.17 kg NPK ha
-1. Comparing the soil properties in homesteads,
Kumar and Nair (2004) explicated that porosity was 14-23% more, bulk density, 12-20% less and particle density, 2-5% less in the homestead compared to adjacent open area.
Soil fertility improvements were attributed to the deep rooted trees and the subsequent cycling of nutrients through litter, branches and fruits and the data emanated imply that nutrient cycling in the homegardens.
Seneviratne et al., (2006) opined that it is not just the biodiversity but the plant structural diversity that which decides efficient nutrient cycling in homegardens. The multi strata canopy and root system assure annidation in space for the growth resources
viz. sunlight, water and nutrients. Comparative studies on the microbial counts in open and homegarden soils have revealed higher biological counts in the latter
(Isaac, 2001). Similarly higher fungal and bacterial population was also observed in traditional agroforestry systems of Northeast India
(Tangjang and Arunachalam, 2009). Soil improvement in 15 indigenous home gardens of different ages (1-40 years) in the savanna of Roraima, Brazil was investigated by
Pinho et al., (2010). Results showed that soil organic matter and P, K, Ca and Mg concentrations increased over time in homegarden soils, in comparison with the levels found in the adjacent savanna.
Multiple production system
Food and nutritional security stands above all the considerations for a resilient farming system. The homestead system succeeds in satisfying the basic needs of human life, food, along with the multiple services of protection, income and sustainability. Selected trees, shrubs and herbs/agricultural crops are grown in homesteads for edible products and cash income, as well as for a variety of outputs that have both production and service values including aesthetic and ecological benefits. The multi-species production systems entailed in the homesteads are considered model systems for designing sustainable agroecosystems
(Chandrashekara and Baiju, 2010). Subsistence output supports the farmer and his family in the form of daily food items and his domestic animals in the form of fodder derived from the by-products of the crops grown.
Species diversity in agroforestry homegardens of southern Ethiopia (Fig 1) was studied by Abebe
et al.
(2010).
Presence of fruit crops (pineapple) fodder crops (congo signal grass, hybrid napier) and azolla were also observed in homesteads of Kerala
(Anilkumar et al., 2017).
Traditional and indigenous knowledge
The resilience of homesteads is greatly enhanced by indigenous traditions and knowledge
(Mukhopadhyay, 2009). It is currently acknowledged that one of the most important tools in the battle against climate change is traditional and indigenous knowledge (ITK), which may be used to manage habitats and use resources wisely. Understanding, in addition to maintaining the farming techniques, can help prevent plant genetic erosion and environmental degradation. Using ITKs can help achieve sustainable food security, preserve plant and animal diversity and conserve soil qualities. Homesteads, which are associated with the cultivation of native and local types and species, medicinal and herbal plants and trees, utilization, germplasm conservation, management techniques, seed storage procedures, animal management and weather forecast indicators, can be thought of as the dwellings of ITKs.
Kala (2010) underlined the importance of traditional ecological knowledge of homegarden farmers in conserving the threatened wild species in homegardens in the study conducted in Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve in India.
Socioeconomic role
The subsistence nature of the homestead assured food and nutritional security for the farm family. The women had a major role in deciding the crops especially vegetables and conservation of indigenous seeds. Inclusion of more number of components thereby increasing the activities has added to manpower involvement and returns contributing to income of the family. The homestead models proposed for various zones of Kerala viz. southern, northern, central and problem zone and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India formulated under the NATP project (2002) revealed additional net income in the range of ₹15000 to 37000 annually
(NATP 2004).
Mohan et al., (2007) stated that these intensively managed systems are often the only source of income for the household in Thrissur, Kerala, India.
Economic analysis of homesteads from two districts
viz. Kannur and Kasargod of Kerala
(Anilkumar et al., 2016) revealed the benefit cost ratio in the homesteads to range from 1.94 to 4.52 in Kannur and from 2.54 to 6.42 in Kasargod.
Das and Das (2020) reported that homesteads continue to provide significant economic benefits to marginal farmers, apart from ecological benefits.
Isaac et al., (2019) examined multiple products from a crop-livestock-poultry integrated homestead and assessed the percentage contribution to the annual net income of the family. Milk contributed maximum to the annual net income (40%) followed by coconut (27%), paddy (7%), tubers and spices (6% each), banana (5%), poultry and trees (4% each) and vegetables (1%).
The farmers in Barishal District, Bangladesh earned about USD 50 per year from homestead vegetable gardening which helped them to upsurge some sorts of financial safety and improve nutritional status of their families
(Suza et al., 2021).
The financial security ensured from the diverse components adds to the resilience of the system and each component functions as an insurance against vargeries of weather and losses. It can be concluded that over the years, homesteads have changed roles from subsistence farming to commercial farming. The metamorphosis was with the gain in popularity for cash/plantation crops.
Home garden flora was constantly dominated by exotic plant species but strongly connected to their surrounding ecosystems, being composed of at least 60% of plant species from their phyto-geographical districts and home garden plant species were mostly rare
(Gbedomon et al., 2017).
